戴煒棟何兆熊《簡(jiǎn)明語言學(xué)教程》.ppt

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1、Welcome to Linguistics,A New Course on Linguistics for Students of English,,Goals for This Course,To get a scientific view on language; To understand some basic theories on linguistics in order to understand how language is constructed, how language operates, how language is used to do things, how l

2、anguage is acquired or learnt, how language changes over time and varies according to the situation, etc.;; To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching To prepare for the future research work.,Requirements for This Course,Class attendance

3、(10%) Classroom discussion (10%) Fulfillment of assignments (10%) Final Examination (70%),References,戴煒棟，何兆熊，2002，新編簡(jiǎn)明英語語言學(xué)教程，上海外語教育出版社。(Textbook) 胡壯麟，2001，語言學(xué)教程，北京大學(xué)出版社。 劉潤(rùn)清，1995，西方語言學(xué)流派，外語教學(xué)與研究出版社。 Fromkin,V. the way of speaking or writing (e.g. Shakespeares language, Luxuns language); a particula

4、r variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose, colloquial language); the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g. Chinese language, first language); the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language);

5、a tool for human communication. (social function) a set of rules. (rule-governed);,Edward Sapirs definition (1921),“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”,R. A. Halls definition (1968),Language is

6、“the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”,Noam Chomskys definition (1957),“From now on I will consider language to be a set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a f

7、inite set of elements.”,Language can be generally defined as:,a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.,Language is a system.,Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; cant be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.,Language is

8、arbitrary.,Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.,Language is symbolic in nature.,Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would sm

9、ell as sweet.” ----Shakespeare,Language is primarily vocal.,Vocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form.,Language is human-specific.,Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life p

10、ossess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.,The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett),Arbitrariness Productivity/Creativity Duality Displacement Cultural transmission,Arbitrariness,----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings. Onomatopoe

11、ic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, . Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang ) Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy,Productivity/Creativity,----Peculiar to human languages，us

12、ers of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world. A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their ca

13、lls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not

14、“talk” about themselves, the hives, or wind, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires,,Duality (double articulation),Lower level----sounds (meaningless) Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning) A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, for

15、 a far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (we make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a

16、dictionary of sentences of that language.),Displacement,----Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last year There is something special about t

17、he bee dance though. Bees communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food immed

18、iately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries.,Cultural Transmission,----Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct). Animal call systems are genetically tr

19、ansmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees. A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the ne

20、xt by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.,The Origin of Language,人們一直在探討人類語言最初從何處以及怎樣發(fā)展起來的這類問題， 不過幾乎沒有什么事實(shí)證據(jù)來證實(shí)語言的確切起源，因?yàn)槿祟愓Z言也許和人類一樣古老， 而書面記錄的材料只可以追溯到大約四千年前。學(xué)者們

21、對(duì)動(dòng)物交際的某些形式進(jìn)行類推、對(duì)兒童學(xué)習(xí)和掌握語言的過程以及對(duì)“原始”語言進(jìn)行類推，企圖從中探明語言的起源，許多人對(duì)此提出了不同的假設(shè)性的解釋：,The Origin of Language,The divine-origin theory---- Language is a gift of God to mankind. The invention theory---- imitative, cries of nature, the grunts of men working together. The evolutionary theory---- the result of physic

22、al and psychological development.,The Origin of Language,1. The bow-wow theory（汪汪理論） People imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment. 2. The pooh-pooh theory（噗噗理論） Our primitive ancestors uttered instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy. 3. The yo-he-ho theory（喲嗬---喲理論） As pr

23、imitive people worked together, they produced rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.,The Origin of Language,1）繆勒（M. Muller, 1823-1900）提出“本能論”（ding-dong theory or nativistic theory），認(rèn)為聲音和意義之間有神秘的關(guān)聯(lián)：人類語言是從原始人用聲音來表示所遇到的事件這一過程中發(fā)展起來的。 2）葉斯柏森（1660-1943）認(rèn)為， 語言是從原始儲(chǔ)藏式不

24、清楚的贊歌中發(fā)展起來的（sing-song theory唱歌說）。 3）格雷（L. H. Gray, 1875-1955）提出“感嘆說”（pooh-pooh or exclamation, interjectional theory）。該假說把語言的起源歸結(jié)為表達(dá)感情的種種感嘆語詞。,The Origin of Language,4）諾瓦雷（L. Noire, 1847-1889）以在繁重勞 動(dòng)中發(fā)出的喊聲來解釋語言的起源，即所謂“喊聲說”（yo-he-ho theory）。 5）帕杰特（R, Paget, 1869-1955）認(rèn)為， 語言是從某些手勢(shì)和舌頭動(dòng)作的結(jié)合中發(fā)展起來的（ta-ta

25、theory達(dá)達(dá)說）。 “動(dòng)物叫聲說”（animal cry theory）、“摹聲說”（bow-wow, cuckoo, animal cry onomatopoeic, heynonny-nonny theory）等。 6) Marxist view: language was created in the process of working.,Functions of Language,The term communication can be used to cover most of the function of language. But the function of lan

26、guage is varied.,Functions of Language,Jacobson defined six primary factors of any speech event, namely: speaker, addressee, context, message, code, context. Corresponding to these factors, he established a well-known framework of language functions: Referential---to convey message and information (

27、context) Poetic---to indulge in language for its own sake (message) Emotive---to express attitudes, feelings and emotions (addresser) Conative---to persuade and influence other through commands and entreaties (addressee) Phatic---to establish communion with others (contact) Metalingual---to clear up

28、 intentions, words and meanings (code),Functions of Language,M. A. K. Hallidays Summary of the Functions of Language: 1) informative: function 2) interpersonal function 3) performative function 4) emotive function 5) phatic communion 6) recreational function 7) metalingual function,Functions of Lang

29、uage,Phatic: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact. Directive: get the hearer to do something. Informative: give information about facts. Interrogative: get information from others. Expressive: express feelings and attitudes of the speaker. Evocative: create certain feelings in th

30、e hearer (amuse, startle, soothe, worry or please) Performative: language is used to do things, to perform actions.,許國(guó)璋先生認(rèn)為把語言定義成交際工具不夠科學(xué),至少不夠嚴(yán)謹(jǐn).他對(duì)語言的定義做了如下概括:語言是一種符號(hào)系統(tǒng).,當(dāng)它作用于人與人之間的關(guān)系的時(shí)候,它是表達(dá)相互反應(yīng)的中介; 當(dāng)它作用于人與客觀世界的關(guān)系的時(shí)候,它是認(rèn)知事物的工具; 當(dāng)它作用于文化的時(shí)候,它是文化的載體.,2. What is linguistics?,----Linguistics is the scie

31、ntific study of language. ----A person who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.,Four principles of linguistic studies:,Exhaustiveness/adequacy Consistency Economy Objectivity,The scope or major branches of linguistics,Theoretical linguistics(micro-linguistics) Phonetics Phonology Morphology S

32、yntax Semantics Pragmatics Use of linguistics (macro-linguistics) Applied linguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics ,Theoretical linguistics,Phonetics----speech sound (description, classification, transcription): articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics. Phonology----sou

33、nd patterns of languages Morphology----the form of words Syntax----the rules governing the combination of words into sentence. Semantics----the meaning of language (when the meaning of language is conducted in the context of language use----Pragmatics),Use of linguistics,Applied linguistics----lingu

34、istics and language teaching Sociolinguistics---- social factors (e.g. class, education) affect language use Psycholinguistics----linguistic behavior and psychological process Stylistics----linguistic and literature,Some other applications,Anthropological linguistics Neurolinguistics Computational l

35、inguistics (e.g. machine translation; artificial intelligence),Some Important Distinctions in Linguistics,Descriptive vs Prescriptive,Descriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic) Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguist

36、ic behavior in using language (traditional grammar),Synchronic vs Diachronic,Synchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time),Speech vs Writ

37、ing,Speech ---- primary medium of language Writing ---- later developed,Langue vs Parole (F. de Saussure),Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community. Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure takes a sociological view of language and

38、his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.,Competence and Performance (Chomsky),Competence ---- the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication Chomsky looks at language from a psychological poi

39、nt of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.,Traditional Grammar vs Modern Linguistics,Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based framework Modern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework,Chapter 2 Phonology,Langu

40、age is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication.,Phonetics,----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods

41、for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. p: bilabial, stop.,Three branches of phonetics,Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds” Auditory phonetics----from the hearers point of view, “how sounds are perceived” Acoustic

42、 phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.,Articulatory phonetics,Speech organs: three important areas,,Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat; The oral cavity ---- the mouth; Nasal cavity ---- the nose.,The diagram of speech organs,Lips Teeth Teeth

43、ridge (alveolar) Hard palate Soft palate (velum) Uvula Tip of tongue Blade of tongue Back of tongue Vocal cords Pharyngeal cavity Nasal cavity,Orthographic representation of speech sounds,---- A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic

44、Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound. Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear l , pit Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.

45、g. dark l , aspirated p ,Some major articulatory variables,---- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary: Voicing---- voiced fricatives: f, v, s, z, W, T, F, V, h; affricates: tF, dV; liquids: l(lateral), r; nasals: m, n, N; glides/semivowels: w, j.,The Place of Articulation,bilabial: p, b, m, w;

46、labiodental: f , v; dental: W, T; alveolar: t, d, s, z, n, l, r; palatal: F, V, tF, dV, j ; velar: k, g, N; glottal: h.,The Place of Articulation,Bilabial; Labiodental; Dental or interdental; Alveolar; Palatoalveolar; Palatal; Velar; Uvular; Glottal.,The Description of English Consonants,Classificat

47、ion of Vowels,English vowels can be divided into two large categories: Monophthongs or pure/single vowels Diphthongs or gliding vowels,Monophthongs or Pure/Single Vowels,----According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as: front

48、vowels: I:, I, e, Z, A, B; central vowels: E:, E, Q; back vowels: u:, u, C:, C, B:.,According to the openness of the mouth:,Close: I:, I, u:, u. Semi-close: e, E:; Semi-open: E, C; Open: A, B, C, B:, Q;,The diagram of single vowel classification by applying the two criteria so far mentioned:,Accordi

49、ng to the shape of the lips orthe degree of lip rounding,rounded: u:, u, C:, C; unrounded: I:, I, e, Z, A, B, E:, E, Q, B:.,According to the length of the vowels,long: I:, E:, u:, C:, B: short: I, e, Z, A, E, Q, B, u, C.,Diphthongs/gliding vowels,ei, ai, aU, EU, Ri, iE, ZE, UE.,Exercises: underline

50、the words that begin with a sound as required.,A bilabial consonant: mad sad bad cad pad had lad A velar consonant: nod god cod pod rod Labiodental consonant: rat fat sat mat chat vat pat An alveolar consonant: nick lick sick tick kick quick A palato-alveolar consonant: sip ship tip chip lip zip A d

51、ental consonant: lie buy thigh thy tie rye A glide: one war yolk rush,Underline the words that end with a sound as required:,A fricative pay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang cave message A nasal train bang leaf limb A stop drill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack through tip An affrica

52、te: rack such ridge booze,Underline the words that contain the sound as required:,A central vowel: mad lot but boot word A front vowel: reed pad load fate bit bed cook A rounded vowel: who he bus her hit true boss bar walk A back vowel: paid reap fool top good father,Describe the underlined conson

53、ants according to three dimensions:,vd/vl place manner Letter Brother Sunny Hopper Itching Lodger Calling Singing Robber either,Phonology,Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.,Phonetics it is in

54、terested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how

55、 these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.,Phone, phoneme, allophone,Phone,A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some dont, e.g.

56、bI:t it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in pIt, tIp and spIt.,Allophone,Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in diff

57、erent phonetic environments.,Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.,,Phonemic Contrast,Phonemic contrast----different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g. /b/ and /p/ in bIt and pIt.,Complementary Distribution,Complementary distribution----allophones of the

58、 same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g. dark l but the g sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic.,Suprasegmental Features,Suprasegmental features----the phonemic f

59、eatures that occur above the level of the segments ( larger than phoneme): stress tone intonation,Syllable (what is syllable?),Ancient Greek: a unit of speech sound consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant. Dictionary: word or part of a word which contains a vowel sound o

60、r consonant acting as a vowel. The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET, the PEAK, the CODA, e.g. mAn. The peak is the essential part. It is usually formed by a vowel. But l, n and m might also function as peaks as in “ apple, hidden, communism”.,Stress,Word stress Sentence stress,Word Stress

61、,The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word: verb: im5port; in5crease; re5bel; re5cord noun: 5import; 5increase; 5rebel; 5record ,Word Stress,Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun a

62、nd a phrase consisting of the same elements: compound: 5blackbird; 5greenhouse; 5hotdog noun phrase: black 5bird; green 5house; hot 5dog,Word Stress,The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns: modifier: 5dining-room; 5readingro

63、om; 5sleepingbag doer: sleeping 5baby; swimming 5fish; flying 5plane,Sentence Stress,Sentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, perso

64、n pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed. Note: for pragmatic reasons, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences. He is driving my car. My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.,Tone,Tones are pitch variations

65、,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. English is not a tone language, but Chinese is. ma 媽 (level) ma 麻 (the second rise) ma 馬 (the third rise) ma 罵 (the fourth fall),Intonation,When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the w

66、ord, they are collectively known as intonation. English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used: falling tone (matter of fact statement) rising tone (doubts or question) the fall-rise tone (implied message) For instance, “Thats not the book he wants.”,Grammatical Functions of Intonations,Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, esp. in English. a) It may indicate different sentence types by pitch direction.,Grammatical Function