土木工程 建筑 外文翻譯 外文文獻 英文文獻 歐洲橋梁研究

歐洲橋梁研究 在歐洲，一個共同研究的平臺隨著歐盟的發(fā)展誕生了。為了舉例說明歐洲的研究方法已經被這種方式所替代，一個典型的案例就是有關英國后張法橋梁被討論的事，愛丁堡大學給出了這個關于用數(shù)字化脈沖雷達鑒定后張法混凝土橋梁孔隙的資源互補的案例。引言利用各研究團體的研究成果去驗證大量相關論據是所有研究領域所面臨的挑戰(zhàn)，這是為了能使研究和實踐更好地結合，具有針對性。此外，在歐洲，不容忽視的語言壁壘也是一個巨大的障礙,為了避免再次爆發(fā)類似于從1939年至1945的第二次世界大戰(zhàn)似的的歐洲內戰(zhàn)，歐洲國家有了一個共同的政治目的，成立于20世紀60年代的歐共體便是基于這一目的。它的成立帶有很強的政治動機，但英國并非這一組織的成員，因為很多的歐洲國家視英國的利益為單純的經濟利益，直到70年代，英國才加入由歐共體轉化而來的歐洲經濟共同體。到90年代，歐洲經濟共同體擴展為歐洲國家聯(lián)盟，而此時的歐盟既有共同的政治目標又有建立歐洲共同的貨幣體系的經濟目標。隨著經濟和政治的發(fā)展，土木工程，尤其是橋梁工程至今沒能形成某種統(tǒng)一陣線。這緣于英國和其他的歐洲國家迥異的大學教育培養(yǎng)體制，歐洲基金計劃如蘇格拉底計劃、大不列顛（英國）歐洲計劃等等。對改變這種局面發(fā)揮了獨特的作用，蘇格拉底計劃是以各成員國內互派學生學習為基礎，而英國歐洲計劃主要是給予一些國家的學術機構和工業(yè)伙伴以科研援助；它通常是由一個工業(yè)國家牽頭。關于知識的傳播，目前似乎已出現(xiàn)了2種非常不同的方式、英美主要集中于在相關期刊出版物上發(fā)表首要的研究成果，例如ASCE、LCE及其它期刊，而歐洲內陸國家主要集中于在專門會議上展示其重要的研究成果，后者存在著局限性，新的研究成果的發(fā)布受到了限制。另外，語言也是難以逾越的障礙，那些以英語作為強勢外語的歐洲內陸國家積極參與各種國際會議，如德國、意大利、比利時、以及荷蘭和瑞士。然而，那些不以英語為強勢外語的歐洲國家對國際會議的參與并不積極，比如法國。歐洲的研究在歐洲，關于橋梁研究的方向基本可分為三種類型：1、磚石結構的拱橋英國擁有大量的石拱橋，某些地區(qū)有超過60%的公路橋為古老的石拱橋，這些拱橋當初是為了馬車通行而建造的，但這種橋型在歐洲其它地區(qū)已比較少見，因為它們在二戰(zhàn)中許多已被毀壞。2、混凝土橋梁從20世紀的50年代至70年代，在歐洲涌現(xiàn)了大量的混凝土結構的橋梁，在那個時候，這種構造被視為是免于維修的。歐洲也有大量的使用后張法建造的混凝土橋梁，但這種橋梁中的鐵制錨索套管會妨礙雷達對橋梁的檢測。這種問題僅是存在于法、英兩國。3、鋼結構橋梁20世紀六七十年代，這種橋梁在英國遭受冷落，因為人們發(fā)現(xiàn)到這種橋需要維修保養(yǎng)。但它仍然被用于大跨徑橋梁和鐵路用橋，如今，隨著英國正在進行的高速公路拓寬計劃的實施，這種橋梁又重新受到了人們的青睞。歐洲研究的活躍性一個明確的信息表明專業(yè)人員在這個領域的研究工作正在歐洲興起，但并不代表這種研究方法已經沒有了缺陷。為了說明歐洲正在進行這種形式的研究工作，愛丁堡大學給出了一個這種資源互補的案例：運用數(shù)字化脈沖雷達對后張法建造的混凝土橋梁的孔隙進行檢測。后張法混凝土鐵路橋研究Ove Arup和他的合作者對曼徹斯特的一座長160M的后張法分段預制施工建造的鐵路橋的上部結構的長期穩(wěn)定性進行了檢測和評估，這種技術已被運用于城市輕軌系統(tǒng)。特別需要關注的是后張力法施工的橋梁的完整性。物理檢查、非損傷雷達檢測及其它的研究方法均已被用來去調查橋梁中潛在的缺陷。自從1985年2月1日英國威爾士地區(qū)的一座名叫Ynys-y-Gwas橋梁突然坍塌以來。采用后張力法分段預制施工的橋梁在長期穩(wěn)定性方面受到關注。因為這種橋梁可能會毫無預兆地出現(xiàn)脆性斷裂，后張法鋼絞線在預制段搭接部位的防腐工作是影響這種類型橋梁長期穩(wěn)定性的主要因素。對容易發(fā)生脆性破壞處錨索套管中的沙漿孔隙的鑒定被認為是防腐檢測中最為重要的步驟之一。橋梁描述總體布局Besses o th Barn大橋始建于1969年，是一座三跨總長160m的后張法分段預制施工的混凝土鐵路橋。它的主跨跨徑90米，橫跨M62公路和巴利A665公路與Prestwick公路銜接，與A665公路最小橋下凈空高度為5.18米，與M62公路的橋下凈空則大約為12.5米。橋梁上部結構由空心梯形混凝土箱梁組成。箱體橫截面高6.7m，寬4m。橋梁南部分引橋和中央主跨徑均采用這種長為1.27M的梯形混凝土箱梁結構，后張法施工。這種箱形構件的作用是支撐用來承受鐵軌和行車荷載的現(xiàn)澆混凝土懸臂梁。大橋中跨和南部引橋跨徑均采用后張法裝配式預制結構，這些后張法預制構件構件包括五種類型的預應力張拉措施。1、緣內部的頂端和底部布置縱向錨索管道，管道內的鋼筋束用沙漿封??；2、分布在橫隔板部位的腹板兩側撓曲鋼筋束，鋼筋束被包裹在現(xiàn)澆混凝土內；3、橋梁跨中懸臂梁內布置縱向鋼絞束；4、在229mm寬的腹板內側布置用以提高抗剪切能力的豎直鋼絞束；5、布置穿過冀緣底部用以支撐懸臂梁的橫向鋼絞束。分段施工使用分段預制施工體系是包工單位針對大橋南部和中央跨徑建議的備選方案之一，Current thinking認為這種施工體系在對穿越構件鉸接點處的鋼筋束沒有足夠的腐蝕措施時可能會導致整個結構的脆性斷裂，最初的設計構思是想采用現(xiàn)澆的混凝土結構。檢測和評估檢測各個階段的檢修工作貫穿在橋梁結構所需的試驗中，初期檢查主要記錄如下的一些明顯的缺陷：1、在翼緣上表面的不合格的防水材料。2、空心箱梁內部300mm深度內雨水的滲透情況。3、鉸接縫和支座處有關排水裝置各種的問題。4、中央跨徑下端背面暴露出的縱向裂縫。5、翼緣頂部預應力構件旁邊的縱向裂縫。6、現(xiàn)澆混凝土表面大片的剝落部位和暴露在外的生銹的加強筋。評估參照最初的設計構想，評估以下目標項：1、估算現(xiàn)存的承載能力。2、挖掘原始設計資料中在結構上的缺陷部分。3、根據檢測出的問題作出判斷。檢測和評估的結論根據檢測和評估，仍然存在著一個主要的可疑因素，它就是埋藏在構件里面的預應力鋼絞線、電纜或桿件，雖然從結構原理的角度進行分析，這些假定均不成立。然而，它們一旦被腐蝕，就會對橋梁結構的穩(wěn)定性帶來非常高的風險，這個基本原理已經得到證實。對第一階段評估的全部內容作如下處理：1、進行詳細是材料試驗，去判定隱藏在結構內部的情況，特別是予埋后張法鋼絞線的沙漿。2、混凝土結構耐久性試驗。修理不合格防水材料和混凝土表面的瑕疵。檢測方法非損傷雷達檢測首期調查包括對預制構件鉸接縫裂縫的勘測以及后張法鋼絞線管道中預應力筋腐蝕和完整性的檢測。然而，對出現(xiàn)問題的嚴重性會很難做出判斷。這座橋梁一共有93個鉸接縫，平均每個鉸接縫有24根鋼絞線貫穿，也就是說，那兒大約有2200個要用來進行檢測的部位。一個標準的鉸接縫橫端面，主梁內部的24根鋼筋束很難被檢測到，因為除了鉸接縫外，鋼絞線在施加預應力之后又被現(xiàn)澆的混凝土所包裹。顯然，鉸接縫處鋼筋束完全暴露在外是不切實際的，因此相比較而言，用雷達檢測鋼筋束管道中的孔隙十分高效的，慶幸的是通過鉸接縫的放置鋼絞束的鋼制管道是斷開的，可以用雷達檢測管道槽內的鋼絞束和孔隙。但是，仍然存在的問題是管道周圍的高密度的鐵元素會對雷達信號產生強烈的干擾，而實際上在這一寬102mm，150mm800mm的混凝土區(qū)域內正埋有許多高致密的鋼板。雷達測試試驗有三家公司被邀請前來參觀和指揮試驗研究工作，其中一家放棄，剩下的兩家被要求用兩周的時間去準備試驗和撰寫報告，再把他們的研究成果與物理勘探的結果進行比較。為了對比，選定了10個觀測孔，小孔是垂直向下鉆進導管。這十個小孔中有幾個在鉸接縫處，還有幾個在充滿沙漿的管道處。為了便于使用內徑表面檢測儀，小孔直徑必須有25mm寬，結果顯示愛丁堡大學的研究成果的準確度在60%左右。雷達測繪為主 內徑表面檢查儀檢驗裂縫為輔在完成對橋梁結構雷達檢測后，再使用內徑表面檢查儀來驗證被預知的裂縫。結果顯示，在超過60%的案例中，雷達的檢測是準確的。在其它幾個事例中，一些證據表明在管道上面的現(xiàn)澆混凝土層中發(fā)現(xiàn)了蜂窩狀的孔洞。然而用內徑表面檢查儀檢測時，很難判定裂縫的實際尺寸大小以及在錨索套管中延伸的距離，盡管這些裂縫僅占套管不到25%的部分。但事實上，大多數(shù)存在于沙漿表面與套管上部曲面邊界上的裂縫要比內徑表面檢查儀所檢測到的要窄得多，（內徑表面檢查儀的分辨率大約在9mm左右）。在少數(shù)幾個案例中，在沙漿表面能明顯地看到預應力鋼絞線，但沒有跡象表明有水滲透了進去。而且使用內徑表面檢查儀是不可能看到鋼絞線被腐蝕的情況。數(shù)字雷達測試這種測試方法是利用無線電頻率的雷達天線的穿透性。有以下幾個常用頻率：1GHZ，900MHZ，和500MHZ。最高的頻率能帶來最好的分辯率，但會減小其在混凝土中的穿透深度。最低頻率的穿透能力最強，但是分辯率最低。雷達掃描到的數(shù)據被記錄到GSSISIR系統(tǒng)中，這種系統(tǒng)與雷達發(fā)射脈沖和記錄數(shù)據相對應。雷達天線所收到的數(shù)據從模擬信號被轉換成了數(shù)字信號。這種轉換是使用一種16位的模擬信號變流器，它能使數(shù)據獲得相當高的分辨率，以便用于后續(xù)的數(shù)據處理。這些數(shù)據被顯示在一個高分辨率的彩色監(jiān)測器上。在可視化校對之后，將這些數(shù)據儲存在一個2.3千兆字節(jié)的磁帶上，用于后面的分析和處理。首先通過磁帶記錄下數(shù)字化雷達所掃描到的原始數(shù)據，再通過相關的設置和處理程序轉化為精確和可靠的數(shù)據。沿著軌跡做特別的標記，再通過記錄元件或天線把這個軌跡描述下來。在大學實驗室里進行非破壞性試驗后，將所有的數(shù)字記錄從微機上拷貝下來，（原始數(shù)據資料處理將會消耗35兆字節(jié)的內存。）后張法分析需要運用特殊的處理軟件。這種分析是通過變換的顏色和線形來顯示出特征點，也可以通過顏色的變換顯示相位的變化。除了這些能變換顏色的設備外，還可能使用用來過濾水平線和豎直線的特殊程序。用一個大型熒屏測試器同時顯示原始數(shù)據和處理過的數(shù)據，從而就能很清晰地看到被處理過數(shù)據是在那些地方做過修改的，同時電腦顯示器將把反饋信息標注到縱坐標上。一個更為先進的軟件能夠顯示專用雷達脈沖掃描的區(qū)域，在單獨檢測錨索周圍狀況時，它是一種特別有價值元件。調查研究結果的分析在別處已經有對調查結果非常充分的研究，數(shù)字化雷達繪圖的本質就是將掃描到的被確認有雙重相位位移的節(jié)點轉化為著色線條，從而缺陷部位即被診斷出來。結論1、一個關于橋梁研究平臺的雛形已經在歐洲誕生。2、雷達脈沖波檢測技術的運用大大增加了對Besses o th Barn鐵路橋評估結論的可信度。3、雷達勘察可以顯示后張法鋼絞線孔道內部的大部分缺陷區(qū)域。然而，即使運用了極其一流的研究手段，也沒有跡象表明已發(fā)現(xiàn)受拉鋼絲的腐蝕原因。Bridge research in EuropeA brief outline is given of the development of the European Union, together with the research platform in Europe. The special case of post-tensioned bridges in the UK is discussed. In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio: relating to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges using digital impulse radar. IntroductionThe challenge in any research arena is to harness the findings of different research groups to identify a coherent mass of data, which enables research and practice to be better focused. A particular challenge exists with respect to Europe where language barriers are inevitably very significant. The European Community was formed in the 1960s based upon a political will within continental Europe to avoid the European civil wars, which developed into World War 2 from 1939 to 1945. The strong political motivation formed the original community of which Britain was not a member. Many of the continental countries saw Britains interest as being purely economic. The 1970s saw Britain joining what was then the European Economic Community (EEC) and the 1990s has seen the widening of the community to a European Union, EU, with certain political goals together with the objective of a common European currency. Notwithstanding these financial and political developments, civil engineering and bridge engineering in particular have found great difficulty in forming any kind of common thread. Indeed the educational systems for University training are quite different between Britain and the European continental countries. The formation of the EU funding schemes e.g. Socrates, Brite Euram and other programs have helped significantly. The Socrates scheme is based upon the exchange of students between Universities in different member states. The Brite Euram scheme has involved technical research grants given to consortia of academics and industrial partners within a number of the states a Brite Euram bid would normally be led by an industrialist.In terms of dissemination of knowledge, two quite different strands appear to have emerged. The UK and the USA have concentrated primarily upon disseminating basic research in refereed journal publications: ASCE, ICE and other journals. Whereas the continental Europeans have frequently disseminated basic research at conferences where the circulation of the proceedings is restricted.Additionally, language barriers have proved to be very difficult to break down. In countries where English is a strong second language there has been enthusiastic participation in international conferences based within continental Europe e.g. Germany, Italy, Belgium, The Netherlands and Switzerland. However, countries where English is not a strong second language have been hesitant participants e.g. France.European researchExamples of research relating to bridges in Europe can be divided into three types of structure:Masonry arch bridgesBritain has the largest stock of masonry arch bridges. In certain regions of the UK up to 60% of the road bridges are historic stone masonry arch bridges originally constructed for horse drawn traffic. This is less common in other parts of Europe as many of these bridges were destroyed during World War 2.Concrete bridgesA large stock of concrete bridges was constructed during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. At the time, these structures were seen as maintenance free. Europe also has a large number of post-tensioned concrete bridges with steel tendon ducts preventing radar inspection. This is a particular problem in France and the UK.Steel bridgesSteel bridges went out of fashion in the UK due to their need for maintenance as perceived in the 1960s and 1970s. However, they have been used for long span and rail bridges, and they are now returning to fashion for motorway widening schemes in the UK.Research activity in Europe It gives an indication certain areas of expertise and work being undertaken in Europe, but is by no means exhaustive.In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio. The example relates to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges, using digital impulse radar.Post-tensioned concrete rail bridge analysisOve Arup and Partners carried out an inspection and assessment of the superstructure of a 160 m long post-tensioned, segmental railway bridge in Manchester to determine its load-carrying capacity prior to a transfer of ownership, for use in the Metrolink light rail system.Particular attention was paid to the integrity of its post-tensioned steel elements. Physical inspection, non-destructive radar testing and other exploratory methods were used to investigate for possible weaknesses in the bridge.Since the sudden collapse of Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge in Wales, UK in 1985, there has been concern about the long-term integrity of segmental, post-tensioned concrete bridges which may be prone to brittle failure without warning. The corrosion protection of the post-tensioned steel cables, where they pass through joints between the segments, has been identified as a major factor affecting the long-term durability and consequent strength of this type of bridge. The identification of voids in grouted tendon ducts at vulnerable positions is recognized as an important step in the detection of such corrosion.Description of bridgeGeneral arrangementBesses o th Barn Bridge is a 160 m long, three span, segmental, post-tensioned concrete railway bridge built in 1969. The main span of 90 m crosses over both the M62 motorway and A665 Bury to Prestwick Road. Minimum headroom is 5.18 m from the A665 and the M62 is cleared by approx 12.5 m.The superstructure consists of a central hollow trapezoidal concrete box section 6.7 m high and 4 m wide. The majority of the south and central spans are constructed using 1.27 m long pre-cast concrete trapezoidal box units, post-tensioned together. This box section supports the in site concrete transverse cantilever slabs at bottom flange level, which carry the rail tracks and ballast.The center and south span sections are of post-tensioned construction. These post-tensioned sections have five types of pre-stressing:1. Longitudinal tendons in grouted ducts within the top and bottom flanges.2. Longitudinal internal draped tendons located alongside the webs. These are deflected at internal diaphragm positions and are encased in in site concrete.3. Longitudinal macalloy bars in the transverse cantilever slabs in the central span .4. Vertical macalloy bars in the 229 mm wide webs to enhance shear capacity.5. Transverse macalloy bars through the bottom flange to support the transverse cantilever slabs.Segmental constructionThe pre-cast segmental system of construction used for the south and center span sections was an alternative method proposed by the contractor. Current thinking suggests that such a form of construction can lead to brittle failure of the entire structure without warning due to corrosion of tendons across a construction joint，The original design concept had been for in site concrete construction.Inspection and assessmentInspectionInspection work was undertaken in a number of phases and was linked with the testing required for the structure. The initial inspections recorded a number of visible problems including:1、 Defective waterproofing on the exposed surface of the top flange.2、 Water trapped in the internal space of the hollow box with depths up to 300 mm.3、 Various drainage problems at joints and abutments.4、 Longitudinal cracking of the exposed soffit of the central span.5、 Longitudinal cracking on sides of the top flange of the pre-stressed sections.6、 Widespread sapling on some in site concrete surfaces with exposed rusting reinforcement.AssessmentThe subject of an earlier paper, the objectives of the assessment were:1、 Estimate the present load-carrying capacity.2、 Identify any structural deficiencies in the original design.3、 Determine reasons for existing problems identified by the inspection.Conclusion to the inspection and assessmentFollowing the inspection and the analytical assessment one major element of doubt still existed. This concerned the condition of the embedded pre-stressing wires, strands, cables or bars. For the purpose of structural analysis these elements、had been assumed to be sound. However, due to the very high forces involved,、a risk to the structure, caused by corrosion to these primary elements, was identified. The initial recommendations which completed the first phase of the assessment were:1. Carry out detailed material testing to determine the condition of hidden structural elements, in particularthe grouted post-tensioned steel cables.2. Conduct concrete durability tests.3. Undertake repairs to defective waterproofing and surface defects in concrete.Testing proceduresNon-destructive radar testingDuring the first phase investigation at a joint between pre-cast deck segments the observation of a void in a post-tensioned cable duct gave rise to serious concern about corrosion and the integrity of the pre-stress. However, the extent of this problem was extremely difficult to determine. The bridge contains 93 joints with an average of 24 cables passing through each joint, i.e. there were approx. 2200 positions where investigations could be carried out. A typical section through such a joint is that the 24 draped tendons within the spine did not give rise to concern because these were protected by in site concrete poured without joints after the cables had been stressed.As it was clearly impractical to consider physically exposing all tendon/joint intersections, radar was used to investigate a large numbers of tendons and hence locate duct voids within a modest timescale. It was fortunate that the corrugated steel ducts around the tendons were discontinuous through the joints which allowed the radar to detect the tendons and voids. The problem, however, was still highly complex due to the high density of other steel elements which could interfere with the radar signals and the fact that the area of interest was at most 102 mm wide and embedded between 150 mm and 800 mm deep in thick concrete slabs.Trial radar investigations. Three companies were invited to visit the bridge and conduct a trial investigation. One company decided not to proceed. The remaining two were given 2 weeks to mobilize, test and report. Their results were then compared with physical explorations.To make the comparisons, observation holes were drilled vertically downwards into the ducts at a selection of 10 locations which included several where voids were predicted and several where the ducts were predicted to be fully grouted. A 25-mm diameter hole was required in order to facilitate use of the chosen horoscope. The results from the University of Edinburgh yielded an accuracy of around 60%.Main radar survey, horoscope verification of voids. Having completed a radar survey of the total structure, a baroscopic was then used to investigate all predicted voids and in more than 60% of cases this gave a clear confirmation of the radar findings. In several other cases some evidence of honeycombing in the in site stitch concrete above the duct was found. When viewing voids through the baroscopic, however, it proved impossible to determine their actual size or how far they extended along the tendon ducts although they only appeared to occupy less than the top 25% of the duct diameter. Most of these voids, in fact, were smaller than the diameter of the flexible baroscopic being used (approximately 9 mm) and were seen between the horizontal top surface of the grout and the curved upper limit of the duct. In a very few cases the tops of the pre-stressing strands were visible above the grout but no sign of any trapped water was seen. It was not possible, using the baroscopic, to see whether those cables were corroded.Digital radar testingThe test method involved exciting the joints using radio frequency radar antenna: 1 GHz, 900 MHz and 500 MHz. The highest frequency gives the highest resolution but has shallow depth penetration in the concrete. The lowest frequency gives the greatest depth penetration but yields lower resolution.The data collected on the radar sweeps were recorded on a GSSI SIR System 10. This system involves radar pulsing and recording. The data from the antenna is transformed from an analogue signal to a digital signal using a 16-bit analogue digital converter giving a very high resolution for subsequent data processing. The data is displayed on site on a high-resolution color monitor. Following visual inspection it is then stored digitally on a 2.3-gigabyte tape for subsequent analysis and signal processing. The tape first of all records a header noting the digital radar settings together with the trace number prior to recording the actual data. When the data is played back, one is able to clearly identify all the relevant settings making for accurate and reliable data reproduction.At particular locations along the traces, the trace was marked using a marker switch on the recording unit or the antenna.All the digital records were subsequently downloaded at the Universitys NDT laboratory on to a micro-computer.（The raw data prior to processing consumed 35 megabytes of digital data.） Post-processing was undertaken using sophisticated signal processing software. Techniques available for the analysis include changing the color transform and changing the scales from linear to a skewed distribution in order to highlight、突出certain features. Also, the color transforms could be changed to highlight phase changes. In addition to these color transform facilities, sophisticated horizontal and vertical filtering procedures are available. Using a large screen monitor it is possible to display in split screens the raw data and the transformed processed data. Thus one is able to get an accurate indication of the processing which has taken place. The computer screen displays the time domain calibrations of the reflected signals on the vertical axis.A further facility of the software was the ability to display the individual radar pulses as time domain wiggle plots. This was a particularly valuable feature when looking at individual records in the vicinity of the tendons.Interpretation of findingsA full analysis of findings is given elsewhere, Essentially the digitized radar plots were transformed to color line scans and where double phase shifts were identified in the joints, then voiding was diagnosed.Conclusions1. An outline of the bridge research platform in Europe is given.2. The use of impulse radar has contributed considerably to the level of confidence in the assessment of the Besses o th Barn Rail Bridge.3. The radar investigations revealed extensive voiding within the post-tensioned cable ducts. However, no sign of corrosion on the stressing wires had been found except for the very first investigation. 出處： 出處：天工網