2019年戴煒棟《簡明語言學(xué)教程》配套筆記英文版1

戴煒棟《簡明語言學(xué)教程》配套筆記 英文版1 ChapterIWhatisIanguage? TheoriginsofIanguageSomespeculationsoftheoriginsofIanguage: ThedivinesourceThebasichypothesis:ifinfantswereallowedtogrowupwithouthearinganyIanguage,thentheywouldspontaneouslybeginusingtheoriginalgod-givenIanguage. Actually,childrenlivingwithoutaccesstohumanspeechintheirearlyyearsgrowupwithnoIanguageatall. Thenatural-soundsourceThebow-wowtheory:thesuggestionisthatprimitivewordscouldhavebeenimitationsofthenaturalsoundswhichearlymenandwomenheardaroundthem. The"Yo-heave-ho"theory:thesoundsproducedbyhumanswhenexertingphysicaleffort,especiallywhenco-operatingwithotherhumans,maybetheoriginsofspeechsounds. Onomatopoeicsounds ① Theoral-gesturesourceItisclaimedthatoriginallyasetofphysicalgestureswasdevelopedasameansofcommunication. Thepatternsofmovementinarticulationwouldbethesameasgesturalmovement；hencewavingtonguewoulddevelopfromwavinghand. ② Glossogenetics（言語遺傳學(xué)） ThisfocusesmainlyonthebiologicalbasisoftheformationanddevelopmentofhumanIanguage. Physiologicaladaptation^developnamingabilitydnteractionsandtransactionsPhysicaladaptation Humanteethareuprightandroughlyeveninheight. Humanlipshaveintricatemuscleinterlacing,thusmakingthemveryflexible. Thehumanmouthissmallandcontainsaveryflexibletongue. Thehumanlarynxislowered,creatingalongercavitycalledthepharynx,andmakingiteasierforthehumantochokeonthepiecesoffood,butmakingthesoundspeechpossible. Thehumanbrainislateralized.Thoseanalyticfunctions(tool-usingandIanguage)arelargelyconfinedtothelefthemisphereofthebrainformosthumans. TwomajorfunctionsofIanguage: Interactional:asocialfunctionofIanguage. Transactional:afunctioninvolvingthecommunicationofknowledgeandinformation ThepropertiesofIanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication. a)System:combinedtogetheraccordingtorulesb)Arbitrary:nointrinsicconnectionbetweentheword"pen"andthethingintheworldwhichitreferstoc)VocaI:theprimarymediumissoundforallIanguagesd)Human:Ianguageishuman-specific(交際性與信息性) Communicativevs.lnformative Communicative:intentionallyusingIanguagetocommunicatesomethingInformative:through/viaanumberofsignalsthatarenotintentionallysentDesignfeatures(uniqueproperties):thedefiningpropertiesofhumanIanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication ① Displacement(跨時空性，移位性) Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker(refertopastandfuturetimeandtootherlocations) ② Arbitrariness(任意性) Thereisnologicalornaturalconnectionbetweenalinguisticform(eithersoundorword)anditsmeaning. WhileIanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary. a)echoofthesoundsofobjectsoractivities:onomatopoeicwordsb)somecompoundwords ③ Productivity(能產(chǎn)性，創(chuàng)造性) Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.(Creativityoropen-endedness) ④ Culturaltransition(文化傳遞性) WhilehumancapacityforIanguagehasageneticbasis(everyonewasbornwiththeabilitytoacquirealanguage),thedetailsofanyIanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnt. ⑤ Discreteness（可分離性） EachsoundintheIanguageistreatedasdiscrete. ⑥ Duality（雙重結(jié)構(gòu)性，兩重性或二元性） Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.Thelowerorbasiclevelisastructureofsoundswhicharemeaningless.Thehigherlevelismorphemeorword（doublearticulation） TheabovesixpropertiesmaybetakenasthecorefeaturesofhumanIanguage. Vocal-auditorychannel,reciprocity,specialization,non-directionality,orrapidfade,thesepropertiesarebesttreatedaswaysofdescribinghumanIanguage,butnotasameansofdistinguishingitfromothersystemsofcommunication. [A] ThedevelopmentofwrittenIanguage ① pictograms&ideograms（象形文字和表意文字） Pictogram:whensomeofthepicturescametorepresentparticularimagesinaeonsistentway,wecanbegintodescribetheproductasaformofpicture-writing,orpictograms. Ideogram:thepicturedevelopedasmoreabstractandusedotherthanitsentityisconsideredtobepartofasystemofidea-writing,orideogramHieroglyph:古埃及象形文字 ② Logograms（語標(biāo)書寫法） Whensymbolscometobeusedtorepresentwordsinalanguage,theyaredescribedasexamplesofword-writing,orlogograms. "Arbitrariness"-awritingsystemwhichwasword-basedhadcomeintoexistenee. Cuneiform--楔形文字-theSumerians(5000and6000yearsago) Chineseisoneexampleofitsmodernwritingsystem. Advantages:twodifferentdialectscanbebasedonthesamewritingsystem. Disadvantages:vastnumberofdifferentwrittenforms. ③ Syllabicwriting(音節(jié)書寫法) Whenawritingsystememploysasetofsymbolswhichrepresentthepronunciationsofsyllables,itisdescribedassyllabicwriting. ThePhoenicians:thefirsthumanbeingsthatappliedthefulluseofasyllabicwritingsystem(ca1000BC) ④ Alphabeticwriting(字母書寫法) SemiticIanguages(ArabicandHebrew):firstappliedthisruleTheGreeks：takingtheinherentlysyllabicsystemfromthePhoeniciansviatheRomansLatinalphabetandCyrillicalphabet(SlavicIanguages) ⑤ RebuswritingRobuswritingevolvesaprocesswherebythesymbolusedforanentitycomestobeusedforthesoundofthespokenwordusedforthatentity. Chapter2Whatislinguistics? [A] ThedefinitionoflinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyofIanguage. Processoflinguisticstudy: ① Certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,generalizationareformed ② Hypothesesareformulated; ③ Hypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations; ④ Alinguistictheoryisconstructed. Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication. ThescopeoflinguisticsGenerallinguistics:thestudyofIanguageasawholePhonetics:thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds(orthestudyofthephonicmediumofIanguage)(Howspeechsoundsareproducedandclassified) Phonology:isessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.(Howsoundsformsystemsandfunctiontoconveymeaning) Morphology:thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords(howmorphemesarecombinedtoformwords) Syntax:thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesentences(howmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences) Semantics:thestudyofmeaninginabstractionPragmatics:thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseSociolinguistics:thestudyofIanguagewithrefereneetosocietyPsycholinguistics:thestudyofIanguagewithrefereneetotheworkingsofthemindAppliedlinguistics:theapplicationoflinguisticsprinciplesandtheoriestoIanguageteachingandlearningAnthropologicallinguistics,neurologicallinguistics；mathematicallinguistics；mathematicallinguistics；computationallinguistics [B] Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics ① Prescriptivevs.Descriptive ② Synchronicvs.DiachronicThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime; Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime. ③ SpeechandwritingSpokenIanguageisprimary,notthewritten ④ LangueandparoleProposedbySwisslinguistsF.deSausse(sociological) Langue：referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityParole:referstotherealizationofIangueinactualuse ⑤ CompeteneeandperformaneeProposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomsky(psychological) Competeneetheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhisIanguageChapter3Phoneticsandphonology ThedefinitionofphoneticsPhonetics:thestudyofthephonicmediumofIanguage:itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld'sIanguages. Articulatoryphonetics:thestudyofhowspeechsoundsaremade,orarticulated. Acousticphonetics:dealswiththephysicalpropertiesofspeechassoundwavesintheair. Auditory(orperceptual)phonetics:dealswiththeperception,viatheear,ofspeechsounds. Forensicphonetics:hasanapplicationinlegalcasesinvolvingspeakeridentificationandtheanalysisofrecordedutterances. OrgansofspeechVoiceless:whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded. Voiced:whenthevocalcordsaredrawntogether,theairfromthelungsrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibrationeffect. AlltheEnglishvowelsaretypicallyvoiced(voicing). Theimportantcavities: ThepharyngealcavityTheoralcavityThenasalcavityLips,teeth,teethridge(alveolus),hardpalate,softpalate(velum),uvula,tipoftongue,bladeoftongue,backoftongue,vocalcords [A] OrthographicrepresentationofspeechsoundsBroadandnarrowtranscriptionsIPA(InternationalPhoneticAlphabet/Association) Broadtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonlyNarrowtranscription:thetranscriptionwithdiacriticsE.g.: [l] Qli:f]-- caclear[l](nodiacritic) [l] cfbild]-- cdark[l](~) [l] cfhelW]-- cdental[l]() Qpit]--danaspirated[ph](h) Qspit]--danunaspirated (nodiacritic) [n]Q5bQtn]aasyllabicnasal[n]⑺ [B] ClassificationofEnglishconsonantsIntermsofmannerofarticulation(themannerinwhichobstructioniscreated) ① Stops:theobstructionistotalorcomplete,andthengoingabruptly /[b],[t]/[d],[k]/[g] ② Fricatives:theobstructionispartial,andtheairisforcedthroughanarrowpassageinthemonth [f]/[v],[s]/[z],[W]/[T],[F]/[V],[h](approximant) ③ Affricates:theobstruction,completeatfirst,isreleasedslowlyasinfricatives [tF]/[dV] ④ Liquids:theairflowisobstructedbutisallowedtoescapethroughthepassagebetweenpartorpartsofthetongueandtheroofofthemouth [l]aalateralsound；[r]detroflex ⑤ Glides:[w],[j](semi-vowels) Liquid+glides+[h]capproximants ⑥ Nasals:thenasalpassageisopenedbyloweringthesoftpalatetoletairpassthroughit [m],],n[ Byplaceofarticulation(theplacewhereobstructioniscreated) ① bilabials:upperandlowerlipsarebroughttogethertocreateobstructions /[b],[w]o(velar) ② labiodentals:thelowerlipandtheupperteeth [f]/[v] ③ dentals:thetipofthetongueandtheupperfrontteeth [W]/[T] ④ alveolars:thefrontpartofthetongueonthealveolarridge [t]/[d],[s]/[z],[n],[l],[r] alveo-palatals(palato-alveolars):tongueandtheveryfrontofthepalate,nearthealveolarridge [F]/[V],[t]/[d] ⑤ palatal:tongueinthemiddleofthepalate [j] ⑥ velars:thebackofthetongueagainstthevelum [k],[g],[N]…[w] ⑦ glottals:theglottalisthespacebetweenthevocalcordsinthelarynx [h] ClassificationofEnglishvowelsFronti:CentralBackClose■、i u: uSemi-closeeE: Semi-openEC: OpenA BQRB: ① Thehighestpositionofthetongue:front,central,back； ② Theopennessofthemouth:close,semi-close,semi-open,open； ③ Theroundness(shape)ofthemonth(thelips): Allthefront,centralvowelsareunroundedvowelsexcept[B] Allthebackvowels,except[A:]areroundedvowels Thelengthofthesound:longvowels&shortvowelsLarynx(tense)or(lax) Monophthongs,diphthongsCardinalvowels ThedefinitionofphonologyPhoneticsisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanIanguages；howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc. Phonology,ontheotherhand,isinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularIanguages；itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication. [C] Phone,phoneme,andallophonePhone:thedifferentversionsoftheabstractunit—phonemePhonemethemean-distinguishingsoundinalanguage,placedinslashmarksAllophone:asetofphones,allofwhichareversionsofonephoneme Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpairPhonemiccontrast:whentwophonemescanoccurinthesameenvironmentsintwowordsandtheydistinguishmeaning,they'reinphonemiccontrast. E.g.pin&bin&p/vs./b/rope&robe"p/vs./b/ Complementarydistribution:twoormorethantwoallophonesofthesamephonemesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheycannotappearatthesametime,oroccurindifferentenvironment,besidestheydonotdistinguishmeaning. Minimalpair:whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundsaresaidtoformaminimalpair. Whenagroupofwordscanbedifferentiated,eachonefromtheothers,bychangingonephoneme(alwaysinthesameposition),thenallofthesewordsconstituteaminimalsets. [G] Somerulesinphonology ① sequentialrulesSyllableOnsetrimeNucleuscoda [Consonant]vowel[consonant(s)] Phonotacticsof3Csoccurringinonset No1: _/s/ _voicelessstops:/p/,/t/,/k/ _approximants:/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/ No2 Theaffricates[tF]/[dV]andthesibilants[s],[z],[F],[V]arenottobefollowedbyanothersibilants. assimilationrulesCo-articulationeffects:theprocessofmakingonesoundalmostatthesametimeasthenextiscalledco-articulation. Assimilation&elisioneffectsAssimilation:twophonemesoccurinsequeneeandsomeaspectofonephonemeistakenorcopiedbytheotherE.g.nasalizeavowelwhenitisfollowedbyanasalsound. deletionrule-ElisionDefinition:theomissionofasoundsegmentwhichwouldbepresentindeliberatepronunciationofawordinisolationE.g.deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant [H] Suprasegmentalfeatures ① StressWordstress&sentencestressThestressoftheEnglishcompoundsalwaysonthefirstelement ToneDefinition:Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords. Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikemorphemes. ToneIanguage,likeChinese,hasfourtones. Level,rise,fall-rise,fall IntonationWhenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation. English:thefourbasictypesofintonation,orthefourtonesThefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risingtone,andtherise-falltoneChapter4Morphology ThedefinitionofmorphologyMorphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed. InflectionalmorphologyDerivationalmorphology(lexicalmorphology) Morphemethesmallestmeaningfulcomponentsofwords (Aminimalunitofmeaningorgrammaticalfunction) [A] Freemorphemes&boundmorphemesFreemorphemes：canstandbythemselvesassinglewords lexicalmorphemes[n.a.v]&functionalmorphemes[conj.prep.art.pron.] Boundmorphemescannotnormallystandalone,butwhicharetypicallyattachedtoanotherform Qerivationalmorphemes--caffix(suffix,infix,prefix)+root dnfleetionalmorphemesd88typesofinflectionalmorphemesinEnglishNoun+-'s,-s[possessive;plural] Verb+-s,-ing,-ed,-en[3rdpersonpresentsingular；presentparticiple；pasttense,pastparticiple] Adj+-er,-est[comparative；superlative] Derivationalvs.inflectionalInflectionalmorphemesneverchangethegrammaticalcategoryofawordInflectionalmorphemesinflueneethewholecategory； DerivationalmorphemesareoppositeOrder:root(stem)+derivational+inflectional MorphologicalRulesN.+lyaa.；A.+lydadv.；guardovergeneralization MorphsandallomorphsMorphs:theactualformsusedtorealizemorphemesAllomorphs:asetofmorphs,allofwhichareversionsofonemorpheme,werefertothemasallomorphsofthatmorpheme. [B] Word-formationprocess ① Coinagedheinventionoftotallynewterms BorrowingdhetakingoverofwordsformotherIanguagesLoan-translation(Claque)ddirecttranslationoftheelementsofawordintotheborrowingIanguageStandalonetobetheoppositeofword-formation ② CompoundingeajoiningoftwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleformFeaturesofcompoundsa)Orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,withorwithoutahypheninbetween,orastwoseparatewords. b) Syntactically,thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement. c) Semantically,themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningsofitscomponents. d) Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement, Whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress. ③ Blendingdakingoverthebeginningofonewordandjoiningittotheendofotherword ④ Clippingdwordofmorethanonesyllablereducedtoashorterform BackformationdaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawaythesuffixofanexistingwordHypocorismsdlippingor+ie ⑤ Conversiondategorychange,functionalshift ⑥ Acronymsdewwordsareformedfromtheinitiallettersofasetofotherwords ⑦ Derivationdhenewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotheroots,stems,orwords ⑧ AbbreviationdashortenedformofawordorphrasewhichrepresentsthecompleteformAnalogyChapter5Grammar [A] TypesofgrammarThestudyofgrammar,orthestudyofthestructureofexpressionsinalanguage,hasaverylongtradition. Mentaigrammar:aformofinternallinguisticknowledgewhichoperatesintheproductionandrecognitionofappropriatelystructuredexpressionsinthatlanguage.Psychologist Linguisticetiquette:theidentificationoftheproperorbeststructurestobeusedinalanguage.^Sociologist Thestudyandanalysisofthestructuresfoundinalanguage,withtheaimofestablishingadescriptionofthegrammarofEnglish,e.g.asdistinetfromthegrammarofRussiaorFrench.aLinguist ThepartsofspeechNouns,adjectives,verbs,adverbs,prepositions,pronouns,conjunctions dhegrammaticalcategoriesofwordsinsentences [B] Traditionalgrammar(Categoriesandanalysis) Othercategories:number,person,tense,voiceandgenderAgreement EnglishIanguagenaturalgenderGrammaticalgenderFrench TypesofgrammarconcerninganalysisTheprescriptiveapproachTheviewofgrammarasasetofrulesfortheproperuseofalanguageThedescriptiveapproach:analystscollectsamplesoftheIanguagetheyareinterestedinandattempttodescribetheregularstructuresoftheIanguageatitisused,notaccordingtosomeviewofhowitshouldbeused. [C] Structuralandimmediateconstituentanalysis(ICAnalysis) Structuralanalysis:toinvestigatethedistinctionofforms(e.g.morphemes)inalanguageICAnalysis:howsmallconstituents(Components)insentencesgotogethertoformlargerconstituents [D] LabeledandbracketedsentencesHierarchicalorganizationoftheconstituentsinasentenceLabeleachconstituentwithgrammaticaltermssuchasArt.N.NPChapter6Syntax [A] ThedefinitionofsyntaxAsubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureofIanguage [B] ThebasiccomponentsofasentenceSentenceSubjectPredicateReferringexpressioncomprisesfiniteverboraverbphraseandsayssomethingaboutthesubject TypesofsentencesSimplesentence:consistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence. Coordinate(Compound)sentence:containstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunctions,suchas"and","by","or"… Complexsentence:containstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheotherEmbeddedclausedmatrixclause ① subordinator②functionsasagrammaticalunit③maybecomplete [C] ThelinearandhierarchicalstructuresofsentencesWhenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranotherinasequence,whichsuggeststhestructureofasentenceislinear. Butthesuperficialarrangementofwordsinalinearsequeneedoesnotentailthatsentencesaresimplylinearly-structured；sentencesareorganizedwithwordsofthesamesyntacticcategory,suchasNPorVP,groupedtogether. TreediagramofconstituentstructureBracketsandsubscriptlabels SomecategoriesSyntacticcategories:refertoawordoraphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,suchasthesubjectorthepredicateLexicalcategories:(partsofspeech) Majorlexicalcategories(opencategories): N.V.Adj.Adv. Minorlexicalcategories(closedcategories): Det.Aux.Prep.Pron.Conj.lnt. Phrasalcategories:NP,VP,PP,AP GrammaticalRelationsThestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsofconstituentsItconcernsthewayeachnounphraseinthesentencerelatestotheverbSubjectofanddirectobjectofStructuralsubject,structuralobjectLogicalsubject(thedoeroftheaction),thelogicalobject(therecipientoftheaction) Thesetwogroupsofsubjectsandobjectsmayhavedifferentpositions CombinationalrulesAresmallinnumberdYieldallthepossiblesentencesRuleouttheimpossibleones ① phrasestructurerules(rewriterules) ScNPVP (Asentenceconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anounphraseandaverbphrase) NPQDet.)(Adj.)N(PP)(S) Anoptionaldeterminer….andobligatorynoun, VPcV(NP)(POP)(S) APaA(PP)(S) PPcPNP ② therecursivenessofphrasestructurerulesSignificantly,theaboverulescangenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences,andsentenceswithinfinitelength,duetotheirrecursiveproperties. ③ X-bartheoryHeaddanobligatorywordthatgiversthephraseitsnameXPorX-phraseXPCSpecifier)X(complement) Formula: X"dSpecX' X-bartheory(X-barschema) X'CcomplTreediagramX" SpecifierX' Xcomplement [D] SyntacticmovementandmovementrulesSyntacticmovementoccurswhenaeonstituentinasentencemovesoutofitsoriginalplacetoanewplaceTransformationalrules NP-movementandWH-movementNP-movementactivevoicepassivevoicePostposing,preposingWH-movement:affirmativednterrogativeLeftwardmattertothesentenceinitial-position ① OthertypesofmovementAux-movement:themovementofanauxiliarytothesentence-initialposition D-structureandS-structureTwolevelsofsyntacticrepresentationofasentencestructure: OnethatexistsbeforemovementtakesplaceTheotherthatoccursaftermovementtakesplaceFormallinguisticexploration D-structure:phrasestructurerules+lexiconSentenceatthelevelofD-structureTheapplicationofsyntacticmovementrulestransformsasentencefromD-structureleveltoS-structurelevel