2022年戴煒棟_新編簡明語言學教程文檔版

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1、1 Linguistics is a scientific study of language.語言學是對語言進行的科學研究。General linguistics is the study of language as a whole.普通語言學是對語言從整體上進行的研究the major branches of linguistics:語言學內部主要分支Phonetics：the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.(語音學)對語言交流中語音的研究Phonology the study of how sounds are

2、 put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(音位學)如何組合在一起并在交流中形傳達意義.Morphology:the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words(詞法學、形態(tài)學)如何排列以及組合起來構成詞語Syntax:the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences(句法學)如何在組成語法上可接受的句子Se

3、mantics(語義學)the study of meaning in abstraction語言是用來傳達意義的。Pragmatics(語用學)the study of meaning in context of use用來研究上下文的意義跨學科分支Sociolinguisticsis the study of the relationship between language and society.社會語言學是語言和社會之間關系的研究Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mi

4、nd.心理語言學是語言與心靈的關系的研究Applied linguisticsis the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.應用語言學是外國和第二語言教學的研究Some important distinctions in linguistics語言學中一些基本區(qū)分1.Descriptive or PrescriptiveA linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed;it is prescriptive if i

5、t tries to lay down rules for correct behavior.描述性是在描述和分析人們對語言的實際運用，規(guī)定性是在為語言“正確和規(guī)范的”使用確立規(guī)則。2.Synchronic and DiachronicThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study。共時性對語言在歷史的某一時間點的描述，歷時性對語言

6、隨著時間的變化而變化的描述3.Speech and Writing.4.Langue and ParoleThis is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure(索緒爾）early last century.langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(實際的)language,or realization o

7、f langue.瑞士語言學家索緒爾于20 實際早期提出，語言是一個話語社團所有成員共有的抽象的語言系統(tǒng)，言語是語言在實際運用中的實現(xiàn)。5.Competenceand and PerformanceCompetence is the ideal language users knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(發(fā)聲).語言能力定為理想的語言使用者關于語言規(guī)則方面的知識，語言運用在語言交流中的具體實現(xiàn)。6Modern

8、 linguistics and traditional grammar現(xiàn)代語言學與傳統(tǒng)語法Firstly,linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.語言學是描述性的而傳統(tǒng)語法是規(guī)定。Secondly,modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the written.現(xiàn)代語言學家認為口頭語是最基本的，而不是書面語。Then,modern linguistics differs from traditional gram

9、mar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.現(xiàn)在語言學不同于傳統(tǒng)語法還在于它不強行將語言放進一個拉丁語為基礎的框架內.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.語言是有任意性，用于人類交流的語音標志系統(tǒng)。語言的本質特征1 Language is a system,i.e,elements of language are combined according to certain r

10、ules.語言是一個系統(tǒng)，即語言的元素相結合，按照一定的規(guī)則2 Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.語言符號和符號所代表的事物之間沒有內在的必然的聯(lián)系，從這個意義上說語言是任意的。3 Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.語言是有聲，因為所有語言的主要媒介都是聲音精

11、選學習資料 -名師歸納總結-第 1 頁，共 42 頁2 4 Language is human-specific,i.e.,it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.語言是人類特有的，它與其他生物的交際系統(tǒng)不同Design features of language 語言的結構，識別特征Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any a

12、nimal system of communication.識別的特征指人類語言區(qū)別于任何動物交際系統(tǒng)的本質特征1 arbitrariness-It means that there is no logical convention between meaning and sounds.任意性-意味意義和語言之間的沒有什么邏輯的聯(lián)系2 productivity or Creativity-language is productivity or creativity in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of

13、new signals by its users.能產性-語言是能產的或具有創(chuàng)造性的，它使得者可以建構或和解釋的新的符號3 duality-language is system,which consists of two sets of structures.雙重性-語言系統(tǒng)，它由兩種結構組成套the lower or the basic level-sounds which are meaningless,but can be grouped and regrouped into words the higher level-words which are meaningful.4Displ

14、acement-Language can be use to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker。移位性-語言能夠指遠離說話人所在場合的情境5 Cultural transmission while human capacity for language has a genetic basis,the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted,but instead have to be taught an

15、d learned.文化傳承性-而人類的語言能力具有遺傳的基礎，任何語言系統(tǒng)的細節(jié)都要靠傳教和學習。Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonologyPhonetics the study of the phonic medium of language:it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.語音學是對語言的媒介進行的研究，它關注語言世界中所有的語音Three branches of phonetics語音學三個分支Articulatory :tikjuleit?ri pho

16、netics-發(fā)音語音學（歷史最悠久）Auditory.?:dit?ri phonetics-聽覺語音學Acoustic?ku:stik phonetics-聲學語音學three important cavities Organs of speech三個重要區(qū)域發(fā)音器官Pharyngeal f?rind?i:?l cavity-the throat r?ut;咽腔，喉嚨The oral cavity-the mouth;口腔，嘴巴Nasal ne?z?l cavity-the nose.鼻腔，鼻子Lips,teeth,teeth ridge rid?(alveolus)齒齦,hard pala

17、te 硬腭,soft palate(velum)軟腭,uvula ju:vjul?小舌,tip of tongueInternational Phonetic Alphabet(IPA).國際音標Orthographic?:?r?fikrepresentation of speech sounds語音的正字法表征Broad transcription【tr?nskr?p?】-the transcription with letter-symbols only寬式標音是用代表字母的符號標音Narrow transcription-the transcription with diacritics

18、.,dai?kritik 嚴式標音是用代表字母的符號和變音共同標音Voiceless:when the vocal cords are spread apart,the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.,?nimpi:did 清音 是當聲帶完全張開，氣流通過聲帶而不引起振動Voicing/voiced:when the vocal cords are drawn together,the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through,crea

19、ting a vibrationva?bre?n effect 濁化是 當氣流在強行穿過的時候會使他們以不同的速度振動。Classification of English speech sounds英語語音的分類Vowels va?l and Consonantsk?ns?n?nt 元音和輔音Classification of consonants輔音的分類-English consonants may be classified according to two dimensionsdimen?n:1The manner of articulation 2 The place of 精選學習

20、資料 -名師歸納總結-第 2 頁，共 42 頁3 articulation 英語中的輔音按兩種標準劃分：1 發(fā)音方式2 發(fā)音部位The manner of articulationstops/plosives:p,t,d,k,g;閉塞音fricativesfrik?tiv:f,v,s,z,h;摩擦音affricates?frikit:,;塞擦音liquidslikwid:r;l 流音nasalsne?z?l:m,n,;鼻音glides laid :w,j.滑音The place of articulation bilabialbaileibi?l:p,m,w,b雙唇音labiodental l

21、eibi?udentl:f,v;唇齒音dental.dent?l:,;齒音alveolar?lvi?l?:t,d,s,z,n,l,r;齒齦音palatal p?l?t?l:,j;腭音velar vi:l?:k,g,;軟顎音glottal l?tl:h.喉音Classification of English vowels英語元音的分類1.the part of the tongue that is raised-front,center or back 2.the opening of the mouth-close,semi-close,semi-open,open 3.the shape o

22、f the lips-rounded,unrounded 4.the length of the sound-tense,lax(緊，松)Monophthongs m?n?uf?or pure/single vowels元音Diphthongsd?f,?:?or gliding vowels雙元音front vowels central vowels back vowels Close 閉Semi-close:半閉Semi-open:半開Open:開Phonology Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds,that is,the w

23、ays in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives,which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish m

24、eaning in a particular language?What sounds vary in what ways in what context?What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?Phonetics&phonology Both are concerned with the same aspect of language-the speech sounds.But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of g

25、eneral nature;it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages;it aims to answer questions like:how they are produced,how they differ from each other,what phonetic features they have,how they can be classified,etc.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form p

26、atterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.精選學習資料 -名師歸納總結-第 3 頁，共 42 頁4 Phone,phoneme,allophone Phone:the different versions of the abstract unit phoneme Phoneme:the mean-distinguishing sound in a language,placed in slash marks Allophone:a set of phones,all o

27、f which are versions of one phoneme Phone A phone-a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning,some do,some don t,e.g.bt&bt,spt&spt.Phoneme A phoneme-is a phonological unit;it is a unit o

28、f distinctive value;an abstract unit,not a particular sound,but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context,e.g.the phoneme/p/can be represented differently in pt,tp and spt.Allophone Allophones-the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.Phonemic

29、contrast,complementary distribution and minimal pair.Phonemic contrast-different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast,e.g./b/and/p/in bt and pt.Complementary distribution-allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution.They do not distinguish meaning.They occur in differ

30、ent phonetic contexts,e.g.dark l&clear l,aspirated p&unaspirated p.Minimal pair Minimal pair-when two different forms are identical(the same)in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings,the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair,e.g.beat,bit

31、,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.Some rules of phonology Sequential rules Assimilation rule Deletion rule Sequential rules-the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language,e.g.in English,“k b i I”might possibly form blik,klib,bilk,kilb.If a word begins with a l or a r,then th

32、e next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word,the combination should obey the following three rules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.a)the first phoneme must be/s/,b)the second phoneme must be/p/or/t/or/k/,c)the third phoneme must be/l/or

33、/r/or/w/.*never occurs in initial position in English and standard Chinese,but it does occur in some dialects,e.g.in Cantonese:“牛肉，我，俄語”Assimilation rule-assimilates one sound to another by“copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar,e.g.the prefix in is pronounced d

34、ifferently when in different phonetic contexts:indiscreet alveolar n inconceivable velar input bilabial Assimilation in Mandarin 好啊hao wa 海啊hai ya 看啊kan na 唱啊chang 跳啊tiao wa Deletion rule-it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented,e.g.design,paradigm,there

35、is no 精選學習資料 -名師歸納總結-第 4 頁，共 42 頁5 g sound;but the g sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature,designation,paradigmatic.Syllable(what is syllable?)Ancient Greek:a unit of speech sound consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant.Dictionary:word or part of a w

36、ord which contains a vowel sound or consonant acting as a vowel.The syllable consists of three parts:the ONSET,the PEAK,the CODA,e.g.mn.The peak is the essential part.It is usually formed by a vowel.But l,n and m might also function as peaks as in“apple,hidden,communism”.Suprasegmental features-the

37、phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments(larger than phoneme):Stress:word stress and sentence stress Word stress The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning,e.g.a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word:verb:import;increase;rebel;record noun

38、:import;increase;rebel;record Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements:compound:blackbird;greenhouse;hotdognoun phrase:black bird;green house;hot dogThe meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combi

39、nations of-ing forms and nouns:modifier:dining-room;readingroom;sleepingbagdoer:sleeping baby;swimming fish;flying plane Sentence stress-the relative force given to the components of a sentence.Generally,nouns,main verbs,adjectives,adverbs,numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed.Other categ

40、ories like articles,person pronouns,auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.Note:for pragmatic reason,this rule is not always right,e.g.we may stress any part in the following sentences.He is driving my car.My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.Tone Tones are pitch

41、 variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.English is not a tone language,but Chinese is.ma 媽(level)ma 麻(the second rise)ma 馬(the third rise)ma 罵(the fourth fall)Intonation When pitch,stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the wo

42、rd,they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone(matter of fact statement)rising tone(doubts or question)the fall-rise tone(implied message)For instance,“That s not the book he wants.”Grammatical functions of intonations-In

43、tonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language,esp.in English.a)It may indicate different sentence types by pitch direction.b)It may impose different structures on the sentence by dividing it into different intonation units,e.g.“John didn t come because of Mar

44、ry”Within one intonation unit,it means:John came,but it had nothing to do with Marry.With two intonation units,it means:Marry was the reason why John didn t come.Exercises:Think of the utterance in different intonations:“Those who bought quickly made a profit.”c)It can make a certain part of a sente

45、nce especially prominent by placing nucleus on it,e.g.Jack came yesterday by train.d)Its attitudinal functions.Falling tone-matter-of-fact statement,精選學習資料 -名師歸納總結-第 5 頁，共 42 頁6 downright assertion,commands.Rising tone-politeness,encouragement,pleading.Note:these can only be very general indications

46、.The specific attitudinal meaning of an intonation pattern must be interpreted within a context.Summary:Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called suprasegmental features.These features are distinctive features.Stress Stress is the perceived prominence of

47、 one or more syllabic elements over others in a word.Stress is a relative notion.Only words that are composed of two or more syllables have stress.If a word has three or more syllables,there is a primary stress and a secondary stress.In some languages word stress is fixed,i.e.on a certain syllable.I

48、n English,word stress is unpredictable.Intonation When we speak,we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas.Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker.In English,there a

49、re three basic intonation patterns:fall,rise,fall-rise.Tone Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words.The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with different tones.Chinese is a typical tone language.Discovering phonemes Contrastive distribution phonemes If sounds app

50、ear in the same environment,they are said to be in contrastive distribution.Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs and minimal sets.A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound in the same position.Minimal sets are more than two words that are dist

51、inguished by one segment in the same position.The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented by the English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English.However,these sounds are distinctive in terms of ph

52、onetic features.Therefore,they are separate phonemes.Complementary distribution allophones Sounds that are not found in the same position are said to be in complementary distribution.If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number of features,they are allophones of the same phoneme.

53、Free variation If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning,they are said to be in free variation.Distinctive and non-distinctive features Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features,and features do not,non-distinctive

54、 features.Distinctive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.本章重點：Phonology is a major branch of linguistics.It is the study of the sound systems of languages and of the general properties of sound systems.The differences between phonetics and phonology Phonetics is regarded as t

55、he linguistic study to identify and describe the characteristics of all the speech sounds that occur in all human languages,whereas phonology is the description of the sound systems and patterns of individual languages.Phonetics provides the means for phonological description.And in a sense,phonolog

56、y is really the application of phonetics to the process of communication in a particular language or languages.Phonetics is the study of the production,perception,and physical properties of speech sounds;phonology attempts to account for how they are combined,organized,and convey meaning in particul

57、ar languages.Speaker s mind-mouth-ear-listener s mind精選學習資料 -名師歸納總結-第 6 頁，共 42 頁7 Phonology phonetics Phonetics Phonology Sounds of language functioning of sounds as part of a language Parole,speech act language,language system Universal language-specific Concrete abstract Phone phoneme/Although bot

58、h are related to the study of sounds,phonetics studies the production,transmission,and reception of sounds while phonology focuses on the linguistic patterns of speech sounds and how they are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.A phone is A phoneme is One of many possible sounds in th

59、e languages of the world A distinctive unit in the sound system of a particular language The smallest identifiable unit found in a stream of speech A minimal unit that serves to distinguish between meanings of words Pronounced in a defined way Pronounced in one or more ways,depending on the number o

60、f allophones Represented between brackets by convention Represented between slashed by convention Example:,l Example:/b/,/l/A phoneme is a phonological unit;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communi

61、cation are all phones.The different phones representing a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called its allophones(音位變體)The definitions of phone,phoneme,allophone,minimal pair and free variation,theories on phoneme,phonemic contrast and complementary distribution,feature on phonetic simi

62、larity and distinction;assimilation rule,deletion rule,suprasegmetnal features(syllables,stress,tone,intonation,pitch,etc.)How do you find a phoneme?You know something is a phoneme if it is a distinctive sound in the language How do you find the sounds distinctive?If you find a minimal pair,you know

63、 the sounds are distinctive What is minimal pair?If you have two words which are exactly identical with respect to sounds except for one sound,and the different sounds are at the same position,and the two words have different meanings,then you have a minimal pair.Phonetics-the study of speech sounds

64、 Phonology-the study of sounds systems Phoneme vs.phone/allophone/phoneme/-abstract Actual sound/t/-phoneme Phone Two phones never occur in the same environment-complementary distribution Two phones can occur in the same environment-free variation Although we generalize some rules for word stress,it

65、 should be born in mind that sometimes the exceptions may 精選學習資料 -名師歸納總結-第 7 頁，共 42 頁8 well make one give up the ideal of rules.Exercises from our school:1.Complementary distribution 2.what is articulatory phonetics,explain the primacy of speech over writing,3.divide the following words into morphem

66、es.For each morpheme,identify the type(lexical or grammatical,free or bound,prefix or suffix,inflectional or derivational),where applicable.1)restate 2)strongest 4.what is illustrated with the following pronunciations?1)cap kap can 2)tent,tenth answer:1)restate=re+state re=grammatical,bound,prefix,derivational state=lexical,free 3)strongest=strong+SUP strong=lexical,free SUP=grammatical,bound,suffix,inflectional 1)nasalization 2)dentalization they are examples of regressive assimilation(逆同化)Page