戴煒棟《簡明語言學教程》配套筆記 英文版1

《戴煒棟《簡明語言學教程》配套筆記 英文版1》由會員分享，可在線閱讀，更多相關(guān)《戴煒棟《簡明語言學教程》配套筆記 英文版1（30頁珍藏版）》請在裝配圖網(wǎng)上搜索。

1、戴煒棟《簡明語言學教程》配套筆記 英文版1 Chapter 1What is language? [A]The origins of language Some speculations of the origins of language： ①The divine source The basic hypothesis：if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language,then they would spontaneously begin using the original god-given lang

2、uage. Actually,children living without access to human speech in their early years grow up with no language at all. ②The natural-sound source The bow-wow theory：the suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them. The

3、"Yo-heave-ho"theory：the sounds produced by humans when exerting physical effort,especially when co-operating with other humans,may be the origins of speech sounds. Onomatopoeic sounds ③The oral-gesture source It is claimed that originally aset of physical gestures was developed as ameans of commun

4、ication. The patterns of movement in articulation would be the same as gestural movement；hence waving tongue would develop from waving hand. ④Glossogenetics(言語遺傳學) This focuses mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language. Physiological adaptationàdevelop nam

5、ing abilityàinteractions and transactions Physical adaptation： Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height. Human lips have intricate muscle interlacing,thus making them very flexible. The human mouth is small and contains avery flexible tongue. The human larynx is lowered,creating alonge

6、r cavity called the pharynx,and making it easier for the human to choke on the pieces of food,but making the sound speech possible. The human brain is lateralized.Those analytic functions(tool-using and language)are largely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for most humans. Two major fu

7、nctions of language： Interactional：a social function of language. Transactional：a function involving the communication of knowledge and information [B]The properties of language Language is asystem of arbitra ry vocal symbols used for human communication. a)System：combined together according to

8、rules b)Arbitrary：no intrinsic connection between the word"pen"and the thing in the world which it refers to c)Vocal：the primary medium is sound for all languages d)Human：language is human-specific(交際性與信息性) Communicative vs.Informative： Communicative：intentionally using language to communicate som

9、ething Informative：through/via anumber of signals that are not intentionally sent Design features(unique properties)：the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication ①Displacement(跨時空性，移位性) Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from

10、the immediate situations of the speaker(refer to past and future time and to other locations) ②Arbitrariness(任意性) There is no logical or natural connection between alinguistic form(either sound or word)and its meaning. While language is arbitrary by nature,it is not entirely arbitrary. a)echo of

11、 the sounds of object sor activities：onomatopoeic words b)some compound words ③Productivity(能產(chǎn)性，創(chuàng)造性) Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(Creativity or open-endedness) ④Cultural transition(文化傳遞性) While human capacity fo

12、r language has agenetic basis(everyone was born with the ability to acquire alanguage),the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted,but instead have to be taught and learnt. ⑤Discreteness(可分離性) Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. ⑥D(zhuǎn)uality(雙重結(jié)構(gòu)性，兩重性或二元性) Langu

13、age is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously.The lower or basic level is astructure of sounds which are meaningless.The higher level is morpheme or word(double articulation) The above six properties may be taken as the core features of human language. Vocal-auditory channel,reciprocity,

14、specialization,non-directionality,or rapid fade,these properties are best treated as ways of describing human language,but not as am eans of distinguishing it from other systems of communication. [C]The development of written language ①pictograms&ideograms(象形文字和表意文字) Pictogram：when some of the pi

15、ctures came to represent particular images in aconsistent way,we can begin to describe the product as aform of picture-writing,or pictograms. Ideogram：the picture developed as more abstract and used other than its entity is considered to be part of asystem of idea-writing,or ideogram Hieroglyph：古埃及

16、象形文字 ②Logograms(語標書寫法) When symbols come to be used to represent words in alanguage,they are described as examples of word-writing,or logograms. "Arbitrariness"-a writing system which was word-based had come into existence. Cuneiform--楔形文字-the Sumerians(5000 and 6000 years ago) Chinese is one e

17、xample of its modern writing system. Advantages：two different dialects can be based on the same writing system. Disadvantages：vast number of different written forms. ③Syllabic writing(音節(jié)書寫法) When awriting system employs aset of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables,it is descri

18、bed as syllabic writing. The Phoenicians：the first human beings that applied the full use of asyllabic writing system(ca 1000 BC) ④Alphabetic writing(字母書寫法) Semitic languages(Arabic and Hebrew)：first applied this rule The Greeks：taking the inherently syllabic system from the Phoenicians via the R

19、omans Latin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet(Slavic languages) ⑤Rebus writing Robus writing evolves aprocess whereby the symbol used for an entity comes to be used for the sound of the spoken word used for that entity. Chapter 2What is linguistics? [A]The definition of linguistics Linguistics is ge

20、nerally defined as the scientific study of language. Process of linguistic study： ①Certain linguistic facts are observed,generalization are formed； ②Hypotheses are formulated； ③Hypotheses are tested by further observations； ④A linguistic theory is constructed. Language is asystem of arbitrary

21、vocal symbols used for human communication. [B]The scope of linguistics General linguistics：the study of language as awhole Phonetics：the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds(or the study of the phonic medium of language)(How speech sounds are produced and classified) Phonology：is

22、 essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in alanguage.(How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning) Morphology：the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words(how morphemes are combined to form words) Syntax：the study of those rules th

23、at govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences(how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences) Semantics：the study of meaning in abstraction Pragmatics：the study of meaning in context of use Sociolinguistics：the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics

24、：the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind Applied linguistics：the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning Anthropological linguistics,neurological linguistics；mathematical linguistics；mathematical linguistics；computational linguist

25、ics [C]Some important distinctions in linguistics ②Synchronic vs.Diachronic The description of alanguage at some point in time； The description of alanguage as it changes through time. ③Speech and writing Spoken language is primary,not the written ④Langue and parole Proposed by Swiss linguist

26、s F.de Sausse(sociological) Langue：refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community Parole：refers to the realization of langue in actual use ⑤Competence and performance Proposed by the American linguist N.Chomsky(psychological) Competence：the ideal user's kn

27、owledge of the rules of his language Chapter 3Phonetics and phonology [A]The definition of phonetics Phonetics：the study of the phonic medium of language：it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages. Articulatory phonetics：the study of how speech sounds are made,or artic

28、ulated. Acoustic phonetics：deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air. Auditory(or perceptual)phonetics：deals with the perception,via the ear,of speech sounds. Forensic phonetics：has an application in legal cases involving speaker identification and the analysis of rec

29、orded utterances. [B]Organs of speech Voiceless：when the vocal cords are spread apart,the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Voiced：when the vocal cords are drawn together,the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through,creating avibration effect. All the Eng

30、lish vowels are typically voiced(voicing). The important cavities： The pharyngeal cavity The oral cavity The nasal cavity Lips,teeth,teeth ridge(alveolus),hard palate,soft palate(velum),uvula,tip of tongue,blade of tongue,back of tongue,vocal cords [C]Orthographic representation of speech sounds

31、Broad and narrow transcriptions IPA(International Phonetic Alphabet/Association) Broad transcription：the transcription with letter-symbols only Narrow transcription：the transcription with diacritics E.g.： [l]à[li：f]--àa clear[l](no diacritic) [l]à[bild]--àa dark[l](~) [l]à[helW]--àa dental[l]()

32、 à[pit]--àan aspirated[ph](h) à[spit]--àan unaspirated (no diacritic) [n]à[5bQtn]àa syllabic nasal[n](7) [D]Classification of English consonants In terms of manner of articulation(the manner in which obstruction is created) ①Stops：the obstruction is total or complete,and then going abruptly /[

33、b],[t]/[d],[k]/[g] ②Fricatives：the obstruction is partial,and the air is forced through anarrow passage in the month [f]/[v],[s]/[z],[W]/[T],[F]/[V],[h](approximant) ③Affricates：the obstruction,complete at first,is released slowly as in fricatives [tF]/[dV] ④Liquids：the airflow is obstructed bu

34、t is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth [l]àa lateral sound；[r]àretroflex ⑤Glides：[w],[j](semi-vowels) Liquid+glides+[h]àapproximants ⑥Nasals：the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it [m],]

35、,n[ By place of articulation(the place where obstruction is created) ①bilabials：upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions /[b],[w]à(velar) ②labiodentals：the lower lip and the upper teeth [f]/[v] ③dentals：the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth [W]/[T] ④alveolar

36、s：the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge [t]/[d],[s]/[z],[n],[l],[r] ⑤alveo-palatals(palato-alveolars)：tongue and the very front of the palate,near the alveolar ridge [F]/[V],[t]/[d] ⑥palatal：tongue in the middle of the palate [j] ⑦velars：the back of the tongue against the velum [

37、k],[g],[N]…[w] ⑧glottals：the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx [h] [E]Classification of English vowels Front i：Central Back Close i` u： u Semi-close eE： Semi-open EC： Open A B QR B： ①The highest position of the tongue：front,central,back； ②The openness of the mouth：

38、close,semi-close,semi-open,open； ③The roundness(shape)of the month(the lips)： All the front,central vowels are unrounded vowels except[B] All the back vowels,except[A：]are rounded vowels ④The length of the sound：long vowels&short vowels Larynx(tense)or(lax) Monophthongs,diphthongs Cardinal vowe

39、ls [F]The definition of phonology Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages；how they are produced,how they differ from each other,what phonetic features they possess,how they can be classified,etc. Phonology,on the other hand,is interested in the system of sounds

40、 of aparticular languages；it aims to discover how speech sounds in alanguage form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. [G]Phone,phoneme,and allophone Phone：the different versions of the abstract unit– phoneme Phoneme：the mean-distinguishing sound in

41、alanguage,placed in slash marks Allophone：a set of phones,all of which are versions of one phoneme [G]Phonemic contrast,complementary distribution,and minimal pair Phonemic contrast：when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning,they're in phonemic co

42、ntrast. E.g.pin&binà/p/vs./b/rope&robeà/p/vs./b/ Complementary distribution：two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time,or occur in different environment,besides they do not distinguish meaning. Min

43、imal pair：when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same plac ein the strings,the two sounds are said to form aminimal pair. When agroup of words can be differentiated,each one from the others,by changing one phoneme(always in the same posi

44、tion),then all of these words constitute aminimal sets. [H]Some rules in phonology ①sequential rules Syllable Onset rime Nucleus coda [Consonant]vowel[consonant(s)] Phonotactics of 3Cs occurring in onset： No1： _/s/ _voiceless stops：/p/,/t/,/k/ _approximants：/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/ No2： The affrica

45、tes[tF]/[dV]and the sibilants[s],[z],[F],[V]are not to be followed by another sibilants. ②assimilation rules Co-articulation effects：the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation. Assimilation&elision effects Assimilation：two phonemes occur in sequen

46、ce and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the other E.g.nasalize avowel when it is followed by anasal sound. ③deletion rule-Elision Definition：t he omission of asound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of aword in isolation E.g.delete a[g]when it occurs before

47、afinal nasal consonant [I]Suprasegmental features ①Stress Word stress&sentence stress The stress of the English compounds always on the first element ②Tone Definition：Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distingu

48、ish meaning just like morphemes. Tone language,like Chinese,has four tones. Level,rise,fall-rise,fall ③Intonation When pitch,stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation,they are collectively known as intonation. English：the four basic types of intonation,or

49、 the four tones The falling tone,the rising tone,the fall-rising tone,and the rise-fall tone Chapter 4Morphology [A]The definition of morphology Morphology is abranch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are forme d. Inflectional morphology Derivati

50、onal morphology(lexical morphology) Morpheme：the smallest meaningful components of words (A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function) [B]Free morphemes&bound morphemes Free morphemes：can stand by themselves as single words àLexical morphemes[n.a.v]&functional morphemes[conj.prep.art.pron.

51、] Bound morphemes：can not normally stand alone,but which are typically attached to another form àDerivational morphemes--àaffix(suffix,infix,prefix)+root àInflectional morphemesà8 8types of inflectional morphemes in English Noun+-'s,-s[possessive；plural] Verb+-s,-ing,-ed,-en[3rd person present s

52、ingular；present participle；past tense,past participle] Adj+-er,-est[comparative；superlative] [C]Derivational vs.inflectional Inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of aword Inflectional morphemes influence the whole category； Derivational morphemes are opposite Order：root(st

53、em)+derivational+inflectional [D]Morphological Rules N.+lyàa.；A.+lyàadv.；guard overgeneralization [E]Morphs and allomorphs Morphs：the actual forms used to realize morphemes Allomorphs：a set of morphs,all of which are versions of one morpheme,we refer to them as allomorphs of that morpheme. [F]Wor

54、d-formation process ①Coinageàthe invention of totally new terms ②Borrowingàthe taking over of words form other languages Loan-translation(Claque)àa direct translation of the elements of aword into the borrowing language Stand alone to be the opposite of word-formation ③Compoundingàa joining of tw

55、o separate words to produce asingle form Features of compounds a)Orthographically,a compound can be written as one word,with or without ahyphen in between,or as two separate words. b)Syntactically,the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element

56、. c)Semantically,the meaning of acompound is often idiomatic,not always being the sum total of the meanings of its components. d)Phonetically,the stress of acompound alw ays falls on the first element, While the second element receives secondary stress. ④Blendingàtaking over the beginning of one

57、 word and joining it to the end of other word ⑤Clippingàa word of more than one syllable reduced to ashorter form ⑥Back formationàa process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word Hypocorismsàclipping or+ie ⑦Conversionàcategory change,functional shift ⑧Acronym

58、sànew words are formed from the initial letters of aset of other words ⑨Derivationàthe new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots,stems,or words ⑩Abbreviationàa shortened form of aword or phrase which represents the complete form Analogy Chapter 5Grammar [A]Types of grammar The

59、study of grammar,or the study of the structure of expressions in alanguage,has avery long tradition. ①Mental grammar：a form of internal linguistic knowledge which operates in the production and recognition of appropriately structured expressions in that language.àPsycholog ist [B]The parts of

60、speech Nouns,adjectives,verbs,adverbs,prepositions,pronouns,conjunctions àthe grammatical categories of words in sentences [C]Traditional grammar(Categories and analysis) Other categories：number,person,tense,voice and gender Agreement： English languagenatural gender Grammatical genderàFrench [D

61、]Types of grammar concerning analysis The prescriptive approach：The view of grammar as aset of rules for the proper use of alanguage The descriptive approach：analysts collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language at it is used,n

62、ot according to some view of how it should be used. [E]Structural and immediate constituent analysis(IC Analysis) Structural analysis：to investigate the distinction of forms(e.g.morphemes)in alanguage IC Analysis：how small constituents(Components)in sentences go together to form larger constituent

63、s [F]Labeled and bracketed sentences Hierarchical organization of the constituents in asentence Label each constituent with grammatical terms such as Art.N.NP Chapter 6Syntax [A]The definition of syntax Asubfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language [B]The basic componen

64、ts of asentence Sentence Subject Predicate Referring expression comprises finite verb or averb phrase and says something about the subject [C]Types of sentences Simple sentence：consists of asingle clause which contains asubject and apredicate and stands alone as its own sentence. Coordinate(Compou

65、nd)sentence：contains two clauses joined by alinking word called coordinating conjunctions,such as"and","by","or"… Complex sentence：contains two,or more,clauses,one of which is incorporated into the other Embedded clauseàmatrix clause ①subordinator②f unctions as agrammatical unit③may be complete [

66、D]The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences When asentence is uttered or written down,the words of the sentence are produced one after another in asequence,which suggests the structure of asentence is linear. But the superficial arrangement of words in alinear sequence does not entail that sentences are simply linearly-structured；sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category,such as NP or VP,grouped together. Tree diagram of constituent structure Brackets and subs