《簡(jiǎn)明語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程》大綱_
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1、 Chapter 1 Introduction 1 The scope of linguistics General linguistics普通語(yǔ)言學(xué): the study of language as a whole從整體研究 1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified) 2.Pho
2、nology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning) 3.Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words) 4.Syntax: the stud
3、y of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences) 5.Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction 6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of use Sociolinguistics: the study of language with reference
4、 to society Psycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind Applied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning Anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematic
5、al linguistics; computational linguistics [C] Some important distinctions in linguistics ① Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 規(guī)定性與描寫性 ② Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共時(shí)性與歷時(shí)性 The description of a language at some point in time; The description of a language as it changes through time. ④ Langue and
6、 parole 語(yǔ)言和言語(yǔ) ⑤ Competence and performance 語(yǔ)言能力與語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用 Proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological) What is language? 什么是語(yǔ)言 [[B] ①Arbitrariness(任意性) There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning. While language
7、is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.(意義和語(yǔ)音之間沒(méi)有什么邏輯的聯(lián)系;雖然是任意性的,但并非完全任意) a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic words (擬聲詞) b) some compound words (某些復(fù)合詞) ②Productivity(能產(chǎn)性,創(chuàng)造性) ③Duality(雙重結(jié)構(gòu)性,兩重性或二元性) Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneo
8、usly. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)(語(yǔ)言是一個(gè)系統(tǒng),包含兩組結(jié)構(gòu)或者兩個(gè)層面。在較低/基本層面存在著語(yǔ)音結(jié)構(gòu),其自身沒(méi)有什么意義;較高層面存在著意義單位;結(jié)構(gòu)的雙重性/語(yǔ)言的雙層性) ④Displacement(跨時(shí)空性,移位性) Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the imm
9、ediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations) ⑤Cultural transition(文化傳遞性) While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted,
10、but instead have to be taught and learnt. Chapter 2 Phonology 音位學(xué) [A] The definition of phonetics(語(yǔ)音學(xué)) Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.(是指對(duì)語(yǔ)言的語(yǔ)音媒介進(jìn)行的研究,它關(guān)注語(yǔ)言世界中的所有語(yǔ)音) Articulatory phonetics: the st
11、udy of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.(發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)) Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.(聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)) Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.(聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)) [B] Organs of speech (發(fā)音器官) Voiceless:
12、清音 when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Voiced (Voicing): 濁音when the vocal cords聲帶 are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. All the English vowels元音are typically
13、voiced (voicing). The important cavities: The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 The oral cavity 口腔 The nasal cavity 鼻腔 其他部位:Lips唇1, teeth齒2, teeth ridge (alveolus)齒齦3, hard palate硬腭4, soft palate (velum)軟腭5, uvula小舌6, tip of tongue舌尖7, blade of tongue舌面8, back of tongue舌后9, vocal cords聲帶10 [C] Orthograph
14、ic representation of speech sounds:Broad and narrow transcriptions (語(yǔ)音的正字法表征:寬式/窄式標(biāo)音) IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association國(guó)際語(yǔ)音協(xié)會(huì)/國(guó)際音標(biāo)) Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only (代表字母的符號(hào)) Narrow transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols together with
15、 the diacritics (變音符) E.g.: [l]à[li:f]--à a clear [l] (no diacritic) [l]à[bild]--àa dark [l] (~) [l]à[help]--àa dental [l] ( ) [p]à[pit]--àan aspirated [ph](h表示送氣) [p]à[spit]--àan unaspirated [p] (no diacritic) [n]à[5bQtn]àa syllabic nasal [n] (7) [D] Classification of English consonants(英
16、語(yǔ)輔音的分類) In terms of manner of articulation 根據(jù)發(fā)音方法分 (the manner in which obstruction is created) ①Stops閉塞音: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly [p]/[b], [t]/[d], [k]/[g] ②Fricatives摩擦音: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the mon
17、th [f]/[v], [s]/[z], [∫]/[з], [θ]/[δ], [h] (approximant) ③Affricates塞擦音: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives [t∫]/[dз] ④Liquids流音: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mo
18、uth [l]àa lateral sound; [r]à retroflex ⑤Glides滑音: [w], [j] (semi-vowels) Liquid + glides + [h]à approximants ⑥Nasals鼻音: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it [m], [n], [η] By place of articulation根據(jù)發(fā)音部位分 (the place where obstruction is created) ①b
19、ilabial雙唇音: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions [p]/[b], [w]à(velar) ②labiodentals唇齒音: the lower lip and the upper teeth [f]/[v] ③dental齒音: the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth [θ]/[δ] ④alveolar齒齦音: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge [t]/
20、[d], [s]/[z], [n], [l], [r] ⑤palatal腭音: tongue in the middle of the palate [θ]/[δ], [t∫]/[dз], [j] ⑥velars軟腭因: the back of the tongue against the velum [k], [g], [η] ⑦glottal喉音: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx [h] [E] Classification of English vowels (英語(yǔ)元音的分類)
21、? ① The highest position of the tongue: front, central, back; ② The openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open; ③ The roundness (shape) of the month (the lips): All the front, central vowels are unrounded vowels except [B] All the back vowels, except [A:] are rounded vowels ④
22、The length of the sound: long vowels & short vowels Larynx à (tense) or (lax) Monophthongs, diphthongs Cardinal vowels [F] The definition of phonology(音位學(xué)) Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, how they differ from each other, wha
23、t phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular languages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communica
24、tion. [G] Phone, phoneme, and allophone(音素、音位、音位變體) Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment (因素是一個(gè)語(yǔ)音單位或者說(shuō)語(yǔ)音段) Phoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit. (音位是一個(gè)音位學(xué)的單位,而且是一個(gè)有區(qū)別意義的單位,是一個(gè)抽象的單位) Allophone: the different phones which can
25、 represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.(在不同的語(yǔ)音環(huán)境下代表某個(gè)音位的音素被稱為該音位的音位變體) [H] Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair(音位對(duì)立、互補(bǔ)分布、最小對(duì)立體) Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words an
26、d they distinguish meaning, they’re in phonemic contrast. E.g. pin & bin à /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe à /p/ vs. /b/ (要會(huì)判斷?。? Complementary distribution: two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same ti
27、me, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning. Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.When a group of words can be d
28、ifferentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minimal sets. [I] Some rules in phonology ① sequential rules 序列規(guī)則 Phonotactics of 3 consonants occurring in onset: 如果三個(gè)輔音都出現(xiàn)在詞首,必須遵循以下三條規(guī)則: No1: ___/s/
29、 第一個(gè)音位一定是/s/ ___voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/ 第二個(gè)音位一定是/p/, /t/, /k/ ___approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/ 第三個(gè)音位一定是/r/, /l/, /w/, /j/ No2: The affricates [t∫],[dз] and the sibilants [s],[z],[θ],[δ] are not to be followed by another sibilants. ② assimilation rules 同化規(guī)則 Co-articu
30、lation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation. Assimilation & elision effects 元音省略 Assimilation: two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the other E.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed
31、by a nasal sound.鼻音化現(xiàn)象 ③ deletion rule/Elision 省略規(guī)則 Definition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolation E.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant 省略詞末鼻輔音前的[g]音 [J] Suprasegmental features (超音段特征) ① Stress重音
32、 Word stress & sentence stress:The stress of the English compounds always on the first element ② Tone聲調(diào) Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.像音素一樣可以區(qū)別意義 Tone language, lik
33、e Chinese, has four tones. 漢語(yǔ)就是一種典型的聲調(diào)語(yǔ)言,有四個(gè)音調(diào) Level, rise, fall-rise, fall 陰平 陽(yáng)平 上聲 去聲 ③ Intonation 語(yǔ)調(diào) When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.English: the four basic types of intonation, or the fou
34、r tones 四種語(yǔ)調(diào) The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall tone 降調(diào) 聲調(diào) 將聲調(diào) 升降調(diào) Chapter 3 Morphology 形態(tài)學(xué) [A] The definition of morphology Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.(指對(duì)詞的內(nèi)部
35、結(jié)構(gòu)以及構(gòu)詞規(guī)則的研究) Morpheme:詞素 the most basic element of meaning.(意義的最基本要素) (A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function最小的意義單位或者語(yǔ)法功能) [B] Free morphemes & bound morphemes(自由詞素和黏著詞素) Free morphemes: can stand by themselves as single words à Lexical morphemes [n.a.v] & functional morphemes [con
36、j.prep.art.pron.] Bound morphemes: can not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form à Derivational morphemes派生詞素àaffix詞綴 (suffix, infix, prefix) + root 后綴 中綴 前綴+詞根 à Inflectional morphemes 曲折詞素à 8 types of inflectional morphemes in English Noun+ -’s, -s [possessive所
37、有格; plural復(fù)數(shù)] Verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en [3rd person present singular第三人稱單數(shù); present participle現(xiàn)在分詞; past tense過(guò)去式, past participle過(guò)去分詞] Adj + -er, -est [comparative比較級(jí); superlative最高級(jí)] [C] Derivational vs. Inflectional 派生(范疇/語(yǔ)類)和曲折(語(yǔ)法標(biāo)志) Inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical cate
38、gory of a word 只表示語(yǔ)法標(biāo)志(時(shí)態(tài)、數(shù)、格) Inflectional morphemes influence the whole category詞的范疇; Derivational morphemes are opposite Order: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional 詞根/詞干+派生+曲折 [D] Morphological Rules 形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則(詞的構(gòu)成方式à詞素是怎樣組合成為詞) N. +lyà a.; A. +lyà adv.; guard overgeneralization [E] Morp
39、hs and allomorphs 語(yǔ)素和語(yǔ)素變體 Morphs: the actual forms used to realize morphemes Allomorphs: a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morpheme, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. e.g.map----maps [s]dog----dogs [z]watch----watches [iz]mouse----mice [ai]ox----oxen [
40、n] tooth----teeth sheep----sheep Each of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme. [F] Word-formation process(構(gòu)詞法) ① Coinageàthe invention of totally new terms (創(chuàng)造全新的詞) ② Borrowingàthe taking over of words form other languages ③ Compoundingà a joining of two separate wor
41、ds to produce a single form (組成復(fù)合詞) ④ Blendingà taking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word ⑤ Clippingà a word of more than one syllable reduced to a shorter form ⑥ Back formationà a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing w
42、ord ⑦ Conversionà category change, functional shift ⑧ Acronymsà new words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words ⑨ Derivationà the new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words(添加詞綴) ⑩ Abbreviationà a shortened form of a word or phrase which r
43、epresents the complete form (縮短原詞) Chapter 4 Syntax 句法學(xué) [A] The definition of syntax Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and rules that govern the formation of sentences(句法學(xué)是研究詞是如何組成句子以及如何支配句子構(gòu)成規(guī)則的一個(gè)語(yǔ)言學(xué)分支) [B]Some categories(范疇) Syntactic c
44、ategories: refer to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject or the predicate句法范疇 Lexical categories: (parts of speech)詞匯范疇 Major lexical categories (open categories): N. V. Adj. Adv. Minor lexical categories (closed categories): Det. Aux. Prep. Pr
45、on. Conj. Int. Phrasal categories: NP, VP, PP, AP短語(yǔ)范疇 ① phrase structure rules (rewrite rules)(短語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則) Sà NP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase) NPà (det.限定詞) (Adj.) N (PP) (S)… “à”:包括/分為 VPà (qual.修飾詞)V (NP) (POP) (S)… “( )”:內(nèi)部的成分
46、可以省略 APà (deg.程度詞)A (PP) (S)… “…”:可以選擇附加其他補(bǔ)語(yǔ) PPà (deg.)P NP… ②X- bar theory Headà an obligatory word that givers the phrase its name XP or X-phrase XPà (Specifier) X (complement) [D]Transformational rules 轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則 àD-structure and S-structure 深層結(jié)構(gòu)和表層結(jié)構(gòu) Deep structure: the structu
47、re that corresponds most closely to the meaningful grouping of words. It is abstract, which gives the meaning of a sentence and which itself is not pronounceable. Surface structure: linear arrangement of words as they are pronounced. A surface structure is relatively concrete, and gives the form
48、of a sentence as it is used in communication. [F] Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis) IC Analysis is to simply divide a sentence into its constituent elements without at first knowing what these elements are. The principle is that we take a sentence and cut it into two and then cut these
49、 parts into two and continue with this segmentation until we reach the smallest grammatical unit, the morphemes Labeled IC analysis Chapter 5 Semantics 語(yǔ)義學(xué) [A] Semantics: the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view (對(duì)意義的研究) [B] Some views concerning the study of meaning 關(guān)于意義研究的一些
50、觀點(diǎn) ① the naming theory命名論 ② the conceptualist view概念論 Thought/reference à concept 思想/指稱 ? ? Symbol/Form (words) 符號(hào)/形式 Referent à(real object)所指 ③ contextualism: John Firth 語(yǔ)境論 ④ behaviorism à Bloomfield 行為主義論 based on contextualist view S: stimulus r: respon
51、se Jill Jack S---------r………s---------R (the small letters r, sàspeech)(the capitalized letter R, Sàpractical events) [C] Sense and reference (意義和指稱) Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form, abstract and de-contextualized.(主要涉及語(yǔ)言形式的固有意義,是抽象,不與語(yǔ)境相關(guān)的) Referen
52、ce: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience(指語(yǔ)言形式在現(xiàn)實(shí)物質(zhì)世界中的事物,是語(yǔ)言成分和非語(yǔ)言的經(jīng)驗(yàn)世界之間的關(guān)系) Moving star I once was bitten by a dog. Morning star Mind you. There i
53、s a dog over there. [D] Major sense relations(主要的意義關(guān)系) ① synonymy同義現(xiàn)象à the sameness or close similarity of meaning a. dialectal synonyms方言同義詞——synonyms used in different regional dialects(美式/英式英語(yǔ)) b. stylistic synonyms文體同義詞——synonyms differing in style (問(wèn)題、正式度不同) c. synonyms that differ in the
54、ir emotive or evaluative meaning情感或評(píng)價(jià)意義不同的同義詞(褒貶義) d. collocational synonyms搭配同義詞(詞語(yǔ)搭配、用法) e. semantically different synonyms語(yǔ)義不同的同義詞(意義上稍有不同) ② polysemy多義現(xiàn)象——one word that has more than one related meaning ③ homonymy 同音異義 Homophones: when two words are identical in sound同音異義 發(fā)音一樣 Homographs:
55、when two words are identical in spelling同形異義 拼寫一樣 Complete homonyms: when two words are identical both in spelling and in Sound完全同音異義詞 ④ hyponymy下義關(guān)系—— inclusiveness 包含關(guān)系 The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.上坐標(biāo)詞 The word which is more specific in meaning is call
56、ed hyponym. Co-hyponym下坐標(biāo)詞 ⑤ antonymy反義詞——oppositeness Gradable antonyms 等級(jí)反義詞(有中間詞,程度不同) Complementary antonyms互補(bǔ)反義詞(兩個(gè)極端dead/alive,male/female) Relational opposites: pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between items(關(guān)系反義詞) [E] Sense relations between sentences句子之間的意義關(guān)系
57、 ① X is synonymous with Y ② X is inconsistent with Y ③ X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X) ④ X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X) ⑤ X is a contradiction X自我矛盾(總是假) ⑥ X is semantically anomalous X語(yǔ)義反常 [F] Componential analysisàa way to analyze lexical meaning (成分分析法à分析詞匯
58、意義的方法) Semantic features語(yǔ)義特征: the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, or semantic features Phonemeà distinctive features區(qū)別特征 Show how those words are related in meaning [G] Predication analysisàa way to analyze sentence meaning proposed by British linguist G. Leech (述謂結(jié)構(gòu)
59、分析法à分析句子意義的方法) ① the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total (of the meanings of all its components) ② Grammatical meaning and semantic meaning 包括語(yǔ)法意義和語(yǔ)義意義 Grammaticality 語(yǔ)法規(guī)范性 selectional restrictions選擇限制規(guī)則 Semantic analysis: Predication (basic unit)述謂結(jié)構(gòu)à the abstract meaning of the s
60、entence句子的抽象意義 Argument(s) 變?cè)~成分) predicate謂詞(謂語(yǔ)) Logical participant(s) Sth said about an argument or states the logical relation linking the argument(s) in a sentence The predicate can be regarded as the main element. Tom smokes.à TOM (SMOKE)à one-place predication Kids like apples.à K
61、ID, APPLE (LIKE)à two-place predication It’s raining.à (BE RAIN)à no-place predication Chapter 6 Pragmatics 語(yǔ)用學(xué) [A] The definition of pragmatics Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication(是研究某一語(yǔ)言的使用者如何使用句子而達(dá)到成功交際) What essentially di
62、stinguish semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.(在意義的研究中是否考慮到了語(yǔ)境的音素) If it is not, it is semantics. If it is, it is pragmatics. [B] Context 語(yǔ)境/上下文 It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the heare
63、r.(由說(shuō)話人和聽(tīng)話人共有的知識(shí)構(gòu)成) [C]Sentence meaning and utterance meaning ★句子意義和話語(yǔ)意義 e.g. The dog is barking. If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation, then we treat it as a sentence.如果把它當(dāng)做一個(gè)語(yǔ)法單元,認(rèn)為它是一個(gè)獨(dú)立于語(yǔ)境之外的單元,那就當(dāng)做句子 If we take it as something a speaker
64、 utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.如果把它當(dāng)做是說(shuō)話人在特定場(chǎng)景帶著特定目的所說(shuō)的話,那就當(dāng)做話語(yǔ) Meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized.句子的意義是抽象的,脫離語(yǔ)境的 Meaning of an utterance is concrete, and contextualized.話語(yǔ)的意義是具體的,依賴語(yǔ)境的 Utterance is based on se
65、ntence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.話語(yǔ)的意義基于句子的意義之上,它是句子的抽象意義在交際的真實(shí)場(chǎng)景中的體現(xiàn) [D] Speech Act Theory(言語(yǔ)行為理論) [A speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking] 說(shuō)話人在說(shuō)話時(shí)可能同時(shí)執(zhí)行三個(gè)動(dòng)作
66、 ① locutionary act:(言內(nèi)行為)the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. 通過(guò)句法、詞匯、音位學(xué)傳遞字面意義 ② illocutionary act:(言外行為)the act of expressing the speaker’s intention It is the act preformed in saying something.通過(guò)一個(gè)話語(yǔ),表達(dá)說(shuō)話的意圖 ③ perlocutionary act:(言后行為)the act performed by or resulting from saying something It is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.話語(yǔ)的效果 [E] Principles of conversatio
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