戴煒棟《簡(jiǎn)明語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程》配套筆記自己整理版

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1、Chapter1Introduction Whatislinguistics?什么是語(yǔ)言學(xué) [A] Thedefinitionoflinguistics Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage對(duì)語(yǔ)言進(jìn)行的科學(xué)研究) Processoflinguisticstudy: ① Certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,generalizationareformed; ② Hypothesesareformulated; ③ Hypothesesaretestedbyfurthero

2、bservations; ④ Alinguistictheoryisconstructed? [B] ThescopeoflinguisticsGenerallinguistics普通語(yǔ)言學(xué)：thestudyoflanguageasawhole從整體研究 1.Phonetics:thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds(orthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage)(Howspeechsoundsareproducedandclassified) 2?Phonology:isessentiallyt

3、hedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.(Howsoundsformsystemsandfunctiontoconveymeaning) 3?Morphology:thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords(howmorphemesarecombinedtoformwords) 4?Syntax:thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesenten

4、ces(howmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences) 5. Semantics:thestudyofmeaninginabstraction 6. Pragmatics:thestudyofmeaningincontextofuse Sociolinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety Psycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofthemind Appliedlinguistics:thea

5、pplicationoflinguisticsprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearningAnthropologicallinguistics,neurologicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;computationallinguistics [C] Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics ① Prescriptivevs.Descriptive規(guī)定性與描寫(xiě)性 ② Synchronicvs.Diac

6、hronic共時(shí)性與歷時(shí)性(現(xiàn)代英語(yǔ)多研究共時(shí)性) Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime; Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime. diachronic >（historical）linguistics synchronicling'uistics ③ Speechandwriting Spokenlanguageisprimary,notthewritten ④ Langueandparole ProposedbySwisslinguistsF?deSausse

7、（sociological） Langue:referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity扌旨一個(gè)話語(yǔ)社團(tuán)所有成員共有的語(yǔ)言系統(tǒng)） Parole:referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse（指語(yǔ)言在實(shí)際運(yùn)用中的實(shí)現(xiàn)） ⑤ Competenceandperformance語(yǔ)言能力與語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用 ProposedbytheAmericanlinguistN?Chomsky（psychological） Competence:theidealuser's

8、knowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.（理想的語(yǔ)言使用者關(guān)于語(yǔ)言規(guī)則方面的知識(shí)） Performance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticscommunication.（這種知識(shí)在語(yǔ)言交流中的具體實(shí)現(xiàn)） Whatislanguage?什么是語(yǔ)言 [A] Thedefinitionoflanguage Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.（語(yǔ)言是--個(gè)具有任意性、用于人類交流的語(yǔ)音符號(hào)系統(tǒng)。） a）Sy

9、stem:combinedtogetheraccordingtorules（根據(jù)規(guī)則組合在一起） b）Arbitrary:nointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor（語(yǔ)言符號(hào)和符號(hào)所代表的事物之間沒(méi)有內(nèi)在的必然的聯(lián)系） c）Vocal:theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages（所有語(yǔ)言的首要媒介都是聲音） d）Human:languageishuman-specific（語(yǔ)言是人類所獨(dú)有的） [B] Designfeatures（uniqueproper

10、ties）:thedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication（識(shí)別特征是指人類語(yǔ)言區(qū)別于任何動(dòng)物交際系統(tǒng)的本質(zhì)特征） ① Arbitrariness（任意性） Thereisnologicalornaturalconnectionbetweenalinguisticform（eithersoundorword）anditsmeaning.Whilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary（意義和語(yǔ)音之間

11、沒(méi)有什么邏輯的聯(lián)系；雖然是任意性的，但并非完全任意） a）echoofthesoundsofobjectsoractivities:onomatopoeicwords（擬聲詞） b）somecompoundwords（某些復(fù)合詞） ② Productivity（能產(chǎn)性，創(chuàng)造性） Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.（Creativityoropen-endedness） ★③Duality（雙重結(jié)構(gòu)性，兩重性或二元性） Lang

12、uageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.Thelowerorbasiclevelisastructureofsoundswhicharemeaningless.Thehigherlevelismorphemeorword（doublearticulation）（語(yǔ)言是--個(gè)系統(tǒng),包含兩組結(jié)構(gòu)或者兩個(gè)層面。在較低/基本層面存在著語(yǔ)音結(jié)構(gòu)，其自身沒(méi)有什么意義；較高層面存在著意義單位；結(jié)構(gòu)的雙重性/語(yǔ)言的雙層性） ④ Displacement（跨時(shí)空性，移位性） Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremo

13、vedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker（refertopastandfuturetimeandtootherlocations） ⑤ Culturaltransition（文化傳遞性） Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis（everyonewasbornwiththeabilitytoacquirealanguage）,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlea

14、rnt. Theabove5propertiesmaybetakenasthecorefeaturesofhumanlanguage. Chapter2Phonology音位學(xué) [A] Thedefinitionofphonetics（語(yǔ)音學(xué)） Phonetics:thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurin theworld'slanguages.（是指對(duì)語(yǔ)言的語(yǔ)音媒介進(jìn)行的研究，它關(guān)注語(yǔ)言世界中的所有語(yǔ)音） Articulatoryphonetics:thestudyof

15、howspeechsoundsaremade,orarticulated.（發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)） Acousticphonetics:dealswiththephysicalpropertiesofspeechassoundwavesintheair.（聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)）Auditory（orperceptual）phonetics:dealswiththeperception,viatheear,ofspeechsounds.（聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)） [B] Organsofspeech（發(fā)音器官） Voiceless:清冃音whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfrom

16、thelungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded.Voiced（Voicing）:濁音whenthevocalcords聲帶aredrawntogether,theairfromthelungsrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibrationeffect. AlltheEnglishvowels兀音aretypicallyvoiced（voicing）. Theimportantcavities: Thepharyngealcavity咽腔 Theoralcavity口腔 Thenasalcav

17、ity鼻腔 其他部位：Lips唇1,teeth齒2,teethridge（alveolus）齒齦3,hardpalate硬腭4,softpalate（velum）軟腭5,uvula小舌6,tipoftongue舌尖7,bladeoftongue舌面8,backoftongue舌后9,vocalcords聲帶10 [C] Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds:Broadandnarrowtranscriptions (語(yǔ)音的正字法表征：寬式/窄式標(biāo)音)一一 IPA(InternationalPhoneticAlphabet/Associat

18、ion國(guó)際語(yǔ)音協(xié)會(huì)/國(guó)際音標(biāo)) Broadtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly(代表字母的符號(hào)) Narrowtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics(變音符) E.g.: [l]T[li:f]--Taclear[l](nodiacritic) [l]T[bild]--Tadark[l](?) [l]T[help]--Tadental[l]() [p]T[pit]--Tanaspirated[ph](h表示送

19、氣) [p]T[spit]--Tanunaspirated[p](nodiacritic) [n]T[Sb^tn]Tasyllabicnasal[n](養(yǎng)) [D] ClassificationofEnglishconsonants(英語(yǔ)輔音的分類) Intermsofmannerofarticulation根據(jù)發(fā)音方法分(themannerinwhichobstructioniscreated) ① Stops閉塞音：theobstructionistotalorcomplete,andthengoingabruptly [p]/[b],[t]/[d],[k]/[g] ② Fr

20、icatives摩擦音：theobstructionispartial,andtheairisforcedthroughanarrowpassageinthemonth [f]/[v],[s]/[z],[J]/[3]，⑹/[可，[h](approximant) ③ Affricates塞擦音：theobstruction,completeatfirst,isreleasedslowlyasinfricatives[tJ]/[d3] ④ Liquids流音:theairflowisobstructedbutisallowedtoescapethroughthepassagebetweenp

21、artorpartsofthetongueandtheroofofthemouth [l]Talateralsound;[r]Tretroflex ⑤ Glides滑音：[w],[j](semi-vowels) Liquid+glides+[h]Tapproximants ⑥ Nasals鼻音:thenasalpassageisopenedbyloweringthesoftpalatetoletairpassthroughit [m],[n],[n] Byplaceofarticulation根據(jù)發(fā)音部位分(theplacewhereobstructioniscreated) ①

22、 bilabial雙唇音:upperandlowerlipsarebroughttogethertocreateobstructions[p]/[b],[wT(velar) ② labiodentals唇齒音：thelowerlipandtheupperteeth[f]/[v] ③ dental齒音:thetipofthetongueandtheupperfrontteeth[0]/[8] ④ alveolar齒齦音：thefrontpartofthetongueonthealveolarridge[t]/[d],[s]/[z],[n],[l],[r] ⑤ palatal腭音：tong

23、ueinthemiddleofthepalate[0]/[8],[tJ]/[d3],[j] ⑥ velars軟腭因：thebackofthetongueagainstthevelum[k],[g],[n]?glottal喉音：theglottalisthespacebetweenthevocalcordsinthelarynx[h] [E] ClassificationofEnglishvowels(英語(yǔ)兀音的分類) ① Thehighestpositionofthetongue:front,central,back; ② Theopennessofthemouth:close

24、,semi-close,semi-open,open; ③ Theroundness(shape)ofthemonth(thelips): Allthefront,centralvowelsareunroundedvowelsexcept[達(dá)] Allthebackvowels,except[A:]areroundedvowels ④Thelengthofthesound:longvowels&shortvowels Larynx->（tense）or（lax） Monophthongs,diphthongs Cardinalvowels [F] Thedefinitionof

25、phonology（音位學(xué)） Phoneticsisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc. Phonology,ontheotherhand,isinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguages;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsin

26、alanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication. [G] Phone,phoneme,andallophone（音素、音位、音位變體） Phone：aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment（因素是一個(gè)語(yǔ)音單位或者說(shuō)語(yǔ)音段） Phoneme:aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue,itisanabstractunit.（音位是一個(gè)音位學(xué)的單位，而且是一個(gè)有區(qū)別意義的單位，是一個(gè)

27、抽象的單位） Allophone:thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.（在不同的語(yǔ)音環(huán)境下代表某個(gè)音位的音素被稱為該音位的音位變體） [H] Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,minimalpair（音位對(duì)立、互補(bǔ)分布、最小對(duì)立體）Phonemiccontrast:whentwophonemescanoccurinthesameenvironmentsint

28、wowordsandtheydistinguishmeaning,they'reinphonemiccontrast. E.g.pin&bin->/p/vs./b/rope&robe->/p/vs./b/（要會(huì)判斷?。? Complementarydistribution:twoormorethantwoallophonesofthesamephonemesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheycannotappearatthesametime,oroccurindifferentenvironment,besidestheydon

29、otdistinguishmeaning. Minimalpair]:whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Whenagroupofwordscanbedifferentiated,eachonefromtheothers,bychangingonephoneme（alwaysinthesameposition）,thenallofthesewor

30、dsconstituteaminimalsets. [I] Somerulesinphonology ① sequentialrules序列規(guī)則 Phonotacticsof3consonantsoccurringinonset:如果三個(gè)輔音都出現(xiàn)在詞首，必須遵循以下三條規(guī)則： Nol: —/s/第一個(gè)音位一定是/s/ voicelessstops:/p/,/t/,/k/第二個(gè)音位一定是/p/,/t/,/k/ approximants:/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/第三個(gè)音位一定是/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/ No2: Theaffricates[tf],[d3]andth

31、esibilants[s],[z],[0],[8]arenottobefollowedbyanothersibilants. ② assimilationrules同化規(guī)則 Co-articulationeffects:theprocessofmakingonesoundalmostatthesametimeasthenextiscalledco-articulation. Assimilation&elisioneffects兀音省略 Assimilation:twophonemesoccurinsequenceandsomeaspectofonephonemeistakenorco

32、piedbytheother E.g.nasalizeavowelwhenitisfollowedbyanasalsound.鼻音化現(xiàn)象 ③ deletionrule/Elision省略規(guī)則 Definition:theomissionofasoundsegmentwhichwouldbepresentindeliberatepronunciationofawordinisolation E.g.deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant省略詞末鼻輔音前的[g]音 [J] Suprasegmentalfeatures（超音段特征）

33、 ① Stress重音 Wordstress&sentencestress ThestressoftheEnglishcompoundsalwaysonthefirstelement ② Tone聲調(diào) Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords. Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikemorphemes.像音素-一樣可以區(qū)別意義Tonelanguage,likeChinese,hasfourtones.漢語(yǔ)就是

34、一種典型的聲調(diào)語(yǔ)言，有四個(gè)音調(diào)Level,rise,fall-rise,fall陰平陽(yáng)平上聲去聲 ③ Intonation語(yǔ)調(diào) Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation. English:thefourbasictypesofintonation,orthefourtones四種語(yǔ)調(diào)Thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risingtone,andtherise-f

35、alltone降調(diào)聲調(diào)將聲調(diào)升降調(diào) Chapter3Morphology形態(tài)學(xué) [A]Thedefinitionofmorphology Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhich wordsare 二eformed.（指對(duì)詞的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)以及構(gòu)詞規(guī)則的研究） ?r—LLLr—LLLr—LLLr—LLLr—LLLr—LLLr—LLL1Morpheme:詞素themostbasicelementofmeaning.（意義的最基本要素） （Aminimaluni

36、tofmeaningorgrammaticalfunction最小的意義單位或者語(yǔ)法功能） [B] Freemorphemes&boundmorphemes（自由詞素和黏著詞素） Freemorphemes:canstandbythemselvesassinglewords ->Lexicalmorphemes[n.a.v]&functionalmorphemes[conj.prep.art.pron.] Boundmorphemes:cannotnormallystandalone,butwhicharetypicallyattachedtoanotherform ->Deriva

37、tionalmorphemes派生詞素Taffix詞綴（suffix,infix,prefix）+root后綴中綴前綴+詞根Inflectionalmorphemes曲折詞素T8typesofinflectionalmorphemesinEnglish Noun+-'s,-s[possessive所有格;plural復(fù)數(shù)] Verb+-s,-ing,-ed,-en[3rdpersonpresentsingular第三人稱單數(shù)；presentparticiple現(xiàn)在分詞；pasttense過(guò)去式,pastparticiple過(guò)去分詞] Adj+-er,-est[comparative比較級(jí)

38、；superlative最高級(jí)] [C] Derivationalvs?Inflectional派生（范疇/語(yǔ)類）和曲折（語(yǔ)法標(biāo)志） Inflectionalmorphemesneverchangethegrammaticalcategoryofaword只表示語(yǔ)法標(biāo)志（時(shí)態(tài)、數(shù)、格）Inflectionalmorphemesinfluencethewholecategory詞的范疇； Derivationalmorphemesareopposite Order:root（stem）+derivational+inflectional詞根/詞干+派生+曲折 [D] Morpholog

39、icalRules形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則（詞的構(gòu)成方式T詞素是怎樣組合成為詞） N.+lyTa.;A.+lyTadv.;guardovergeneralization 巴Morphsandallomorphs語(yǔ)素和語(yǔ)素變體 Morphs:theactualformsusedtorealizemorphemes Allomorphs:asetofmorphs,allofwhichareversionsofonemorpheme,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms. e.g. map——maps[s] dog——dogs[z] watc

40、h——watches[iz] mouse——mice[ai] ox——oxen[n] tooth——teeth sheep——sheep Eachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofpluralmorpheme. [F]Word-formationprocess(構(gòu)詞法) ① Coinage^theinventionoftotallynewterms(倉(cāng)U造全新的詞) ② BorrowingTthetakingoverofwordsformotherlanguages ③ Compoundingajoiningoftwosepara

41、tewordstoproduceasingleform(組成復(fù)合詞) ④ BlendingTtakingoverthebeginningofonewordandjoiningittotheendofotherword ⑤ ClippingTawordofmorethanonesyllablereducedtoashorterform ⑥ BackformationTaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawaythesuffixofanexistingword ⑦ ConversionTcategorychange,functionalshif

42、t ⑧ AcronymsTnewwordsareformedfromtheinitiallettersofasetofotherwords ⑨ DerivationTthenewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotheroots,stems,orwords(添加詞綴) ⑩ AbbreviationTashortenedformofawordorphrasewhichrepresentsthecompleteform(縮短原詞) Chapter4Syntax句法學(xué) [A]Thedefinitionofsyntax Syntax:Abranch

43、oflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandrulesthatgovern theformationofsentences(句法學(xué)是研究詞是如何組成句子以及如何支配句子構(gòu)成規(guī)則的一個(gè)語(yǔ)言學(xué)分ill"ill"illIrI"ill"ill"ill"ill 支) [C] Typesofsentences Simplesentence簡(jiǎn)單句：consistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstands Coordinate(Compound)s

44、entence并列(復(fù)合)句：containstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalled aloneasitsownsentence. coordinatingconjunctions,suchas“and”，“by”，“or”... Complexsentence復(fù)雜句：containstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheotherEmbeddedclause子句GTmatrixclause主句 ① subordinator?functionsasagrammaticalunit③maybe

45、complete [B] Somecategories(范疇) Syntacticcategorie*refertoawordoraphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,suchasthesubjectorthepredicate句法范疇 Lexicalcategories:(partsofspeech)詞匯范疇 Majorlexicalcategories(opencategories): N.V.Adj.Adv. Minorlexicalcategories(closedcategories): Det.Aux.Pr

46、ep.Pron.Conj.Int. phrasalcategories:NP,VP,PP,AP短語(yǔ)范疇 [?Combinationalrules AresmallinnumberTYieldallthepossiblesentencesRuleouttheimpossibleones ① phrasestructurerules(rewriterules)(短語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則) STNPVP (Asentenceconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anounphraseandaverbphrase) NPT(det.限定詞)(Adj.)N(PP)(S)...“T”：包

47、括/分為 VPT(qual.修飾詞)V(NP)(POP)(S)...“()”：內(nèi)部的成分可以省略 APT(deg.程度詞)A(PP)(S)...“???”：可以選擇附加其他補(bǔ)語(yǔ) PPT(deg.)PNP... ② X-bartheory HeadTanobligatorywordthatgiversthephraseitsname XPorX-phrase XPT(Specifier)X(complement) Formula: X”TSpecX' X-bartheory(X-barschema) XTXcompl [D] Transformationalrules轉(zhuǎn)換

48、規(guī)貝卩 TD-structureandS-structure深層結(jié)構(gòu)和表層結(jié)構(gòu) Deepstructure:thestructurethatcorrespondsmostcloselytothemeaningfulgroupingofwords.Itisabstract,whichgivesthemeaningofasentenceandwhichitselfisnotpronounceable. SurfaCestructure:lineararrangementofwordsastheyarepronounced.Asurfacestructureisrelativelyconcre

49、te,andgivestheformofasentenceasitisusedincommunication. Twolevelsofsyntacticrepresentationofasentencestructure: Onethatexistsbeforemovementtakesplace Theotherthatoccursaftermovementtakesplace Formallinguisticexploration: D-structure:phrasestructurerules+lexicon SentenceatthelevelofD-structure

50、 TheapplicationofsyntacticmovementrulestransformsasentencefromD-structureleveltoS-structurelevelTransformational-generativelineofanalysis [E] SyntacticRelations Sequential(syntagmatic)relations組合關(guān)系 Thelinearorderingofthewordsandthephraseswithinasentence Substitutional(paradigmatic)relations(聚合關(guān)系

51、) Ifthewordsorphrasesinasentencecanbereplacedbywordsandphrasesoutsidethesentenceandtheresultingsentenceisstillgrammatical,thenwesaythereplacingformsandreplacedformshaveparadigmaticrelations. [F] ImmediateConstituentAnalysis(ICAnalysis) ICAnalysisistosimplydivideasentenceintoitsconstituentelements

52、withoutatfirstknowingwhattheseelementsare. Theprincipleisthatwetakeasentenceandcutitintotwoandthencutthesepartsintotwoandcontinuewiththissegmentationuntilwereachthesmallestgrammaticalunit,themorphemes LabeledICanalysis syntacticcategoriescriteriainjudgingsyntacticcategories: 1) morphologicalfeat

53、ures(inflectionalandderivationalaffixestheytake)(number,casegenderetc.) 2) syntacticcontextsinwhichthelinguisticformscanoccur determiner(Det.)noun(n.)qualifier verb(v.) Det. degreeword(Deg)modifier n. Category theboyoftenplaysaverysmallballmust,should...auxiliary(Aux.)and,but,or...conjunctio

54、n(Con.) [G] ThehierarchicalstructureofsentenceAsentencecanbeanalyzedintoconstituents.Conversely,constituentsatdifferentlevelscancombinetoformincreasinglylargerunits. sentences areusedtobuild clauses areusedtobuild phrases areusedtobuild words areusedtobuild morphemes Sentences areanalyze

55、dintoclauses areanalyzedintophrases areanalyzedintowords areanalyzedintomorphemes sentences Sotraditionally,sentencesareassumedtobemadeofindividualwordsinalineardirection Chapter5Semantics語(yǔ)義學(xué) [A]Thedefinitionofsemantics Semantics:thestudyofmeaningfromthelinguisticpointofview（對(duì)意義的研究） [B]Some

56、viewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning關(guān)于意義研究的一些觀點(diǎn) ① thenamingtheory命名論 Referent（realobject）所指 Thought/reference->concept思想/指稱 ② theconceptualistview概念論 Symbol/Form（words）符號(hào)/形式 ③ contextualism:JohnFirth語(yǔ)境論 ④ behaviorism弓Bloomfield行為主義論basedoncontextualistview S:stimulusr:response JillJack SrsR （

57、thesmalllettersr,sTspeech）（thecapitalizedletterR,S^practicalevents） [C] Senseandreference（意義和指稱） Sensej:isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform,abstractandde-contextualized（主要涉及語(yǔ)言形式的固有意義，是抽象，不與語(yǔ)境相關(guān)的） Reference:meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerela

58、tionshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience（指語(yǔ)言形式在現(xiàn)實(shí)物質(zhì)世界中的事物，是語(yǔ)言成分和非語(yǔ)言的經(jīng)驗(yàn)世界之間的關(guān)系） MovingstarIoncewasbittenbyadog. MorningstarMindyou.Thereisadogoverthere. [D] Majorsenserelations（主要的意義關(guān)系） ①synonymy同義現(xiàn)象弓thesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning a. dialectalsynonyms方言同義詞s

59、ynonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects（美式/英式英語(yǔ)） b. stylisticsynonyms文體同義詞synonymsdifferinginstyle（問(wèn)題、正式度不同） c. synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning情感或評(píng)價(jià)意義不同的同義詞（褒貶義） d. collocationalsynonyms搭配同義詞 e. semanticallydifferentsynonyms語(yǔ)義不同的同義詞（意義上稍有不同） ② polysemy多義現(xiàn)象———newordthathasmore

60、thanonerelatedmeaning ③ homonymy同音異義 Homophones:whentwowordsareidenticalinsound同音異義發(fā)音一樣Homographs:whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling同形異義拼寫(xiě)一樣Completehomonyms:whentwowordsareidenticalbothinspellingandinSounc完全同音異義詞 ④ hyponymy下義關(guān)系inclusiveness包含關(guān)系 Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesupero

61、rdinate上坐標(biāo)詞Thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaningiscalledhyponym.Co-hyponym下坐標(biāo)詞 ⑤ antonymy反義詞oppositeness Gradableantonyms等級(jí)反義詞（有中間詞，程度不同） Complementaryantonyms互補(bǔ)反義詞（兩個(gè)極端dead/alive，male/female） Relationalopposites:pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenitems（關(guān)系反義詞） [E] Senserelati

62、onsbetweensentences句子之間的意義關(guān)系 ?XissynonymouswithY~（X與Y同義）如果X真，Y真；X假，Y也假 ② XisinconsistentwithY（X與Y不一致）如果X真，Y假；X假，Y真 ③ XentailsY（YisanentailmentofX）（X蘊(yùn)含Y（Y是X的一個(gè)含義））如果X真，Y一定真（去過(guò)法國(guó)T一定去過(guò)歐洲） 如果X假，Y有可能真（沒(méi)去過(guò)法國(guó)弓去/沒(méi)去過(guò)歐洲歐洲） ④ XpresupposesY（YisaprerequisiteofX）（X預(yù)設(shè)Y（Y是X的先決條件）） 如果X真，Y一定真 如果X假，Y仍然真 ⑤ Xisa

63、contradictionX自我矛盾（總是假） ⑥ XissemanticallyanomalousX語(yǔ)義反常 [F] Componentialanalysis^awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning（成分分析法分析詞匯意義的方法） Semanticfeatures語(yǔ)義特征：themeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,or semanticfeatures Phoneme^distinctivefeatures區(qū)別特征 Showhowthosewordsarerelatedinmeaning [G] P

64、redicationanalysisTawaytoanalyzesentencemeaningproposedbyBritishlinguistG?Leech （述謂結(jié)構(gòu)分析法->分析句子意義的方法） ① themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotal（ofthemeaningsofallitscomponents） ② Grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning包括語(yǔ)法意義和語(yǔ)義意義 Grammaticality語(yǔ)法規(guī)范性selectionalrestrictions選擇限制規(guī)則 Semanticanalysis: Pre

65、dication（basicunit）述謂結(jié)構(gòu)Ttheabstractmeaningofthesentence句子的抽象意義Argument（s）變兀（名詞成分）predicate謂詞（謂語(yǔ)） Logicalparticipant（s）Sthsaidaboutanargumentorstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargument（s）inasentence Thepredicatecanberegardedasthemainelement. Tomsmokes.TTOM（SMOKE）Tone-placepredication Kidslikeapp

66、les.TKID,APPLE（LIKE）Ttwo-placepredication It'sraining.T（BERAIN）Tno-placepredication Chapter6Pragmatics語(yǔ)用學(xué) [A]Thedefinitionofpragmatics Pragmatics:thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication（是研究某一語(yǔ)言的使用者如何使用句子而達(dá)到成功交際） Whatessentiallydistinguishsemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseis JJL-wll」wr-」wr-」wr-」wr-」wr-」wr-」fMr-」wr-」wr-」wr-」wff」rr-f」rr-f」rr-f」rr-f」rr-f」rr-f」rr-f」rr-f」-i considered.（在意義的研究中是否考慮到了語(yǔ)境的音素） Ifitisnot,itissemantic