戴煒棟《簡明語言學(xué)教程》配套筆記

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1、 Chapter 1 Introduction What is linguistics?什么是語言學(xué) [A] The definition of linguistics Linguistics is _ .generally _ defined , as. . the. . scientific . study . of. language (對語言進行的科學(xué)研究) Process of linguistic study: ① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed; ② Hypothe

2、ses are formulated; ③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations; ④ A linguistic theory is constructed. [B] The scope of linguistics General linguistics 普通語言學(xué):the study of language as a whole 從整體研究 1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phon

3、ic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified) 2.Phonology|: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning) 3.Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are ar

4、ranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words) 4.Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences) 5.Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction 6.Pra gm atics: the stu

5、dy of meaning in context of use Sociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind Applied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning Ant

6、hropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics [C] Some important distinctions in linguistics ① Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 規(guī)定性與描寫性 ② Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共時性與歷時性(現(xiàn)代英語多研究共時性) The description of a language

7、 at some point in time; The description of a language as it changes through time. ③ Speech and writing 言語與文字 Spoken language is primary, not the written ④ Langue and parole 語言和言語 Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological) Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by a

8、ll the members of a speech community （指一個話語 社團所有成員共有的語言系統(tǒng)） Parolel refers to the realization of langue in actual use （指語言在實際運用中的實現(xiàn)） ⑤ Competence and performance 語言能力與語言運用 Proposed by the American linguist N, Chomsky （psychological） Competence: the ideal user’s kndgbM the rules of his language.（理

9、想的語言使用者關(guān)于語言規(guī) 則方面的知識） Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistics communication.（這種知識在語言 交流中的具體實現(xiàn)） What is language?什么是語言 [A] The definition of language Language] is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.（ 語言是一個具有任意 性、用于人類交流的語音符號系統(tǒng)。） a） System

10、: combined together according to rules （根據(jù)規(guī)則組合在一起） b） Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for （語言符號和 符號所代表的事物之間沒有內(nèi)在的必然的聯(lián)系） c） Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages （所有語言的首要媒介都是聲音） d） Human: language is human-specific （語言是人類所獨有的）

11、 [B] Design features （unique properties）: the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication （識別特征是指人類語言區(qū)別于任何動物交際系統(tǒng)的本質(zhì)特征） ?Arbitrariness （任意性） There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form （either sound or word） and its mean

12、ing. While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.（意義和語音之間沒有什么邏輯的聯(lián)系；雖 然是任意性的，但并非完全任意） a） echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic words （擬聲詞） b） some compound words （某些復(fù)合詞） ?Productivity （能產(chǎn)性，創(chuàng)造性） Language is productive in that it makes possible the constr

13、uction and interpretation of new signals by its users. （Creativity or open-endedness） ★③Duaity （雙重結(jié)構(gòu)性，兩重性或二元性） Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word （double articul

14、ation）（語言是- -個系統(tǒng)， 包含兩組結(jié)構(gòu)或者兩個層面。在較低/基本層面存在著語音結(jié)構(gòu)，其自身沒有什么意義；較高層面存在著 意義單位；結(jié)構(gòu)的雙重性/語言的雙層性） ?Displacement （跨時空性，移位性） Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker （refer to past and future time and to other locations） ⑤ Cultural transition （文化傳遞性） While

15、human capacity for language has a genetic basis （everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language）, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learnt. The above 5 properties may be taken as the core features of human language. Chap

16、ter 2 Phonology 音位學(xué) [A] The definition of phonetics (語音學(xué)) Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.(是指對語言的語音媒介進行的研究，它關(guān)注語言世界中的所有語音) Articulatory phonetics： the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.

17、(發(fā)音語音學(xué)) Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.(聽覺語音學(xué)) Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.(聲學(xué)語音 學(xué)) [B] Organs of speech (發(fā)音器官) Voiceless:清 曰 when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air

18、 from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Voiced (Voicing): 濁音 when the vocal cords 聲帶 are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. All the English vowels 元音 are typically voiced (voicing). The important cavities: Th

19、e pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 The oral cavity 口腔 The nasal cavity 鼻腔 其他部位：Lips 唇 1, teeth 齒 2, teeth ridge (alveolus)齒齦 3, hard palate 硬腭 4, soft palate (velum)軟腭 5, uvula 小舌 6, tip of tongue 舌尖 7, blade of tongue 舌面 8, back of tongue 舌后 9, vocal cords 聲帶 10 [C] Orthographic representation of speech so

20、unds： Broad and narrow transcriptions (語音的正字法表征：寬式/窄式標音) IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association 國際語 音協(xié)會/國際音標) Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only (代表字母的符號) Narrow transcriptionf the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (變音符) E.g.:

21、 [l]分[li:f]--分 a clear [l] (no diacritic) [l]分[bild]--分 a dark [l] (~) [l]分[help]--分 a dental [l]() [p]分[pit]--分 an aspirated [ph](h 表示送氣 [p]分[spit]--分 an unaspirated [p] (no diacritic) [n]分國 b>tn]分 a syllabic nasal [n](晝) [D] Classification of English consonants (英語輔音的分類) In terms of manner

22、of articulation 根據(jù)發(fā)音方法分 (the manner in which obstruction is created) ① Stops 閉塞音：the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly [p]/[b], [t]/[d], [k]/[g] ② Fricatives摩擦音: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the month [f]/[v], [s]/[z], [ J

23、]/[ 3 ], [0]/[S], [h] (approximant) ③ Affricates塞擦音: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives [t J ]/[d 3 ] ④ Liquids流音: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth [l—a lateral

24、 sound; [r— retroflex ⑤ Glides 滑音:[w], [j] (semi-vowels) Liquid + glides + [h] -> approximants ⑥ Nasals 鼻音：the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it [m], [n], [ n ] 、 By place of articulation根據(jù)發(fā)音部位分 (the place where obstruction is created) ① bilabial 雙唇

25、音：upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions [p]/[b], [w]分(velar) ② labiodentals 唇齒音：the lower lip and the upper teeth [f]/[v] ③ dental 齒音：the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth [0]/[8] ④ alveolar 齒齦音：the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge [t]/[d], [s]/[

26、z], [n], [l], [r] ⑤ palatal 腭音：tongue in the middle of the palate [0]/[8], [t J ]/[d 3 ], [j] ⑥ velars 軟腭因：the back of the tongue against the velum [k], [g], [ n ] ⑦ glottal 喉音：the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx [h] [E] Classification of English vowels （英語元音的分類） m 次S

27、T 央 次后 后 fti i * y j .甘 uj ■ u 次閉 i * y \、 ? u ?半閉 e ? ? s ? e y ? o 小 \ 3 | 半井 E * ce 3*0 A * o 次開 05 H e 開 s - CE ——'、 a ? D 當(dāng)餐號成海史敏眼〉若■豆游代菁期摩等昔 ① The highest position of the tongue: front, central, back; ② The openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open; ③ The roundnes

28、s （shape） of the month （the lips）: All the front, central vowels are unrounded vowels except [遍] All the back vowels, except [A:] are rounded vowels ④ The length of the sound: long vowels & short vowels Larynx -> （tense） or （lax） Monophthongs, diphthongs Cardinal vowels [g] The definition of

29、phonology （音位學(xué)） Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonologyl, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a part

30、icular languages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. [G] Phone, phoneme, and allophone （音素、音位、音位變體） Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment （因素是一個語音單位或者說語音段） Phoneme: a phoneme is a ph

31、onological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit.（音位是 「個音位學(xué)的單位，而且是一個有區(qū)別意義的單位，是一個抽象的單位） Allophone]： the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的語音環(huán)境下代表某個音位的音素被稱為該音位的音位變 體） [H] Phonemi

32、c contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair （音位對立、互補分布、最小對立體） Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they're in phonemic contrast. [Complementary distribution E.g. pin & bin -> /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe 今 /p/ vs. /b

33、/ （要會判斷?。? Minimal pair :two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning. :when two different forms are identical in every way

34、except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme （always in the same position）, then all of these words constitute a minimal sets.

35、 [I] Some rules in phonol ① sequential rules序列規(guī)則 Phonotactics of 3 consonants occurring in onset:如果三個輔音都出現(xiàn)在詞首，必須遵循以下三條規(guī)則： No1: ―/s/ 第一個音位一定是/s/ voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/ 第二個音位一定是 /p/, /t/, /k/ approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/ 第三個音位一定是 /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/ No2: The affricates [t』],[d 3 ]

36、and the sibilants [s],[z],[0],[8] are not to be followed by another sibilants. ② assimilation rules 同化規(guī)則 Co-articulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation. Assimilation & elision effects 兀音省略 Assimilation: two phonemes occur in

37、 sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the other E.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound .鼻音化現(xiàn)象 ③ deletion rule/Elision 省略規(guī)則 Definition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolation E.g. delet

38、e a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant 省略詞末鼻輔音前的[g]音 [J] Suprasegmental features （超音段特征） ① Stress重音 Word stress & sentence stress The stress of the English compounds always on the first element ② Tone聲調(diào) Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibra

39、tion of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.像音 素一樣可以區(qū)別意義 Tone language, like Chinese, has four tones.漢語就是一種典型的聲調(diào)語言，有四個音調(diào) Level, rise, fall-rise, fall 陰平陽平上聲去聲 ③ Intonation 語調(diào) When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the w

40、ord in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tones 四種語調(diào) The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall tone 降調(diào) 聲調(diào) 將聲調(diào) 升降調(diào) Chapter 3 Morphology 形態(tài)學(xué) [A] The definition of morphology Morphology is

41、a branch of grammar which studies . the . internal. . structure . of . words . . and . the . rules . by . which, words are formed.（指對詞的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)以及構(gòu)詞規(guī)則的研究） Morphemq:詞素 the most basic element of meaning.（意義的最基本要素） （A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function 最小的意義單位或者語法功能） [g] Free morphemes & bou

42、nd morphemes （自由詞素和黏著詞素） Free morphemes I： can stand by themselves as single words 3 Lexical morphemes [n.a.v] & functional morphemes [conj.prep.art.pron.] Bound morphemes: can not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form 3 Derivational morphemes 派生詞素 3affix 詞綴（suff

43、ix, infix, prefix） + root 后綴 中綴 前綴+詞根 3 Inflectional morphemes 曲折詞素 3 8 types of inflectional morphemes in English Noun+ -’s, -s [possessive 所有格;plural 復(fù)數(shù)] Verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en [3rd person present singular 第三人稱單數(shù);present participle 現(xiàn)在分詞；past tense 過去 式,past participle 過去分詞] Adj + -er, -est

44、[comparative 比較級；superlative 最高級] [C] Derivational vs. Inflectional 派生（范疇/語類）和曲折（語法標志） Inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word 只表示語法標志（時態(tài)、數(shù)、格） Inflectional morphemes influence the whole category 詞的范疇； Derivational morphemes are opposite Order: root （stem） + deriva

45、tional + inflectional 詞根/詞干+派生+曲折 [D] Morphological Rules形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則（詞的構(gòu)成方式-> 詞素是怎樣組合成為詞） N. +ly3 a.; A. +ly3 adv.; guard overgeneralization [E] Morphs and allomorphs 語素和語素變體 Morphs: the actual forms used to realize morphemes Allomorphs: a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morpheme, a m

46、orpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. e.g. map——maps [s] dog——dogs [z] watch——watches [iz] mouse——mice [ai] ox——oxen [n] tooth——teeth sheep——sheep Each of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme. [F] Word-formation process （構(gòu)詞法） ① Coinage^ the inventio

47、n of totally new terms （創(chuàng)造全新的詞） ② Borrowing^ the taking over of words form other languages ③ Compounding^ a joining of two separate words to produce a single form （組成復(fù)合詞） ④ Blending^ taking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word ⑤ Clipping^ a word of more than one

48、 syllable reduced to a shorter form ⑥ Back formation^ a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word ⑦ Conversion^ category change, functional shift ⑧ Acronyms^ new words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words ⑨ Derivation^ the new word

49、s are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words （添加詞綴） ⑩ Abbreviation^ a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form （縮短原詞） Chapter 4 Syntax 句法學(xué) [A] Th? definition of syntax Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to for

50、m sentences and rules that govern the formation of sentences （句法學(xué)是研究詞是如何組成句子以及如何支配句子構(gòu)成規(guī)則的一個語言學(xué)分 支） [C] Types of sentences Simple sentence 簡單句：consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. Coordinate （Compound） sentence 并歹列（復(fù)合）句:contains

51、 two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunctions, such as “and”， “by”， “or”… Complex sentence 復(fù)雜句：contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other Embedded clause 子句 <3 matrix clause 主句 ① subordinator ②functions as a grammatical unit ③ may be comple

52、te [B] Some categories(范疇) Syntactic categories: refer to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject or the predicate 句法范疇 Lexical categories: (parts of speech)詞匯范疇 Major lexical categories (open categories): N. V. Adj. Adv. Minor lexical categories

53、 (closed categories): Det. Aux. Prep. Pron. Conj. Int. Phrasal categorieS: NP, VP, PP, AP 短語范疇 [C] Combinational rules Are small in number^ Yield all the possible sentences Rule out the impossible ones ① phrase structure rules (rewrite rules)(短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則) S 分 NP VP (A sentence consists of, or is

54、rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase) NP分(det.限定詞)(Adj.) N (PP) (S)... “)'：包括/分為 VP分(qual.修飾詞)V (NP) (POP) (S)... “()” ：內(nèi)部的成分可以省略 AP分(deg.程度詞)A (PP) (S)... “???"：可以選擇附加其他補語 PP 分(deg.)P NP... ② X- bar theory Head 分 an obligatory word that givers the phrase its name XP or X-phrase XP

55、分(Specifier) X (complement) Formula: Xf Spec X’ X-bar theory (X-bar schema) X’分 X compl [D] Transformational rules轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則 ->D-structure and S-structure深層結(jié)構(gòu)和表層結(jié)構(gòu) Deep structure: the structure that corresponds most closely to the meaningful grouping of words. It is abstract, which gives the , mean

56、ing of a sentence and which itself is not pronounceable. Surface structure: linear arrangement of words as they are pronounced. A surface structure is relatively concrete, and gives the form of a sentence as it is used in communication. Two levels of syntactic representation of a sentence structur

57、e: One that exists before movement takes place The other that occurs after movement takes place Formal linguistic exploration: D-structure: phrase structure rules + lexicon Sentence at the level of D-structure The application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence from D-structure

58、level to S-structure level Transformational-generative line of analysis [E] Syntactic Relations Sequential(syntagmatic) relations 組合關(guān)系 The linear ordering of the words and the phrases within a sentence Substitutional(paradigmatic) relations (聚合關(guān)系) If the words or phrases in a sentence can be r

59、eplaced by words and phrases outside the sentence and the resulting sentence is still grammatical, then we say the replacing forms and replaced forms have paradigmatic relations. [F] Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis ) IC Analysis is to simply divide a sentence into its constituent eleme

60、nts without at first knowing what these elements are. The principle is that we take a sentence and cut it into two and then cut these parts into two and continue with this segmentation until we reach the smallest grammatical unit, the morphemes Labeled IC analysis syntactic categories criteria in

61、 judging syntactic categories: 1) morphological features(inflectional and derivational affixes they take) (number,case gender etc.) 2) syntactic contexts in which the linguistic forms can occur Category the determiner (Det.) boy noun (n.) often qualifier plays verb (v.) a Det. very degree w

62、ord (Deg) small modifier ball n. must, should... auxiliary (Aux.) and, but, or. conjunction (Con.) [G] The hierarchical structure of sentence A sentence can be analyzed into constituents. Conversely, constituents at different levels can combine to form increasingly larger units. sentences ar

63、e used to build clauses are used to build phrases are used to build words are used to build morphemes Sentences are analyzed into clauses are analyzed into phrases are analyzed into words are analyzed into morphemes sentences So traditionally, sentences are assumed to be made of ind

64、ividual words in a linear direction Chapter 5 Semantics 語義學(xué) [A] The definition of semantics Semantics:. the .stu.dy..of meaning from the linguistic point of view (對意義的研究) [B] Some views concerning the study of meaning 關(guān)于意義研究的一些觀點 ① the naming theory 命名論 ② the conceptualist view 概念論 Thought/re

65、ference 今 concept 思想/指稱 Symbol/Form (words) 符號/形式 —Referent 3(real object)所指 ③ contextualism: John Firth 語境論 ④ behaviorism -> Bloomfield 行為主義論 based on contextualist view S: stimulus r: response Jill Jack S r s R （the small letters r, s 分 speech）（the capitalized letter R, S 分 practical event

66、s） [C] Sense and reference （意義和指稱） Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form, abstract and de-contextualized.（主要涉 及語言形式的固有意義，是抽象，不與語境相關(guān)的） Reference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience （指語言形式在現(xiàn)實物質(zhì)世界中的 事物，是語言成分和非語言的經(jīng)驗世界之間的關(guān)系） Moving star I once was bitten by a dog. Morning star Mind you. There is a dog over there. [D] Major sense