戴煒棟《簡(jiǎn)明語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程》配套筆記_自己整理版

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1、What is linguistics?什么是語(yǔ)言學(xué)A The definition of linguisticsLinguisticsis .ge.nerally defined_as,the scientific study of language 對(duì)語(yǔ)言進(jìn)行的科學(xué)研究 )Process of lin guistic study:1Certa in lin guistic facts are observed, gen eralizati on are formed;2Hypotheses are formulated;3Hypotheses are tested by further o

2、bservati ons;4A lin guistic theory is con structed.B The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics 普通語(yǔ)言學(xué)：the study of language as a whole 從整體研究1.Phonetics：the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic mediuof lan guage) (How speech sounds are produced and classi

3、fied):is esse ntially the descriptio n of the systems and patter ns of speech sounds in alan guage.(How sounds form systems and fun cti on to convey meaning) 3.Morphology :the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are comb ined to formwords)4.S yn tax: the stu

4、dy of those rules that gover n the comb in ati on of words to form permissible senten ces(how morphemes and words are comb ined to form senten ces)5.Sema ntics：the study of meaning in abstract ion 6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in con text of useSocioli nguistics: the study of lan guage with ref

5、ere nee to society Psycholi nguistics: the study of lan guagewith refere nee to the work ings of the mind Applied lin guistics: the applicatio n of lin guistics prin ciples andtheories to lan guage teachi ng and lear ning An thropological li nguistics, n eurological li nguistics;mathematical li ngui

6、stics; mathematical li nguistics;computati on al li nguisticsC Some importa nt disti ncti ons in lin guistics1Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 規(guī)定性與描寫性2Sy nchro nic vs. Diachro nic共時(shí)性與歷時(shí)性(現(xiàn)代英語(yǔ)多研究共時(shí)性)The description of a Ianguage at someoint in time;The description of a Ianguage as it changethrough time.3

7、Speech and writi ng言語(yǔ)與文字Spoke n Ian guage is primary, not the writte n4Lan gue and parole語(yǔ)言和言語(yǔ)Proposed by Swiss lin guistsF. de Sausse(sociological)Chapter 1Introduction2.Phonology2Lan gue: refers to the abstract li nguistic system shared by all the members of a speech com mun社團(tuán)所有成員共有的語(yǔ)言系統(tǒng)）Parole: r

8、efers to the realizatio n of Ian gue in actual us（指語(yǔ)言在實(shí)際運(yùn)用中的實(shí)現(xiàn)）5Compete nee and performa nee語(yǔ)言能力與語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用Proposed by the America n lin guistN. Chomsky （psychological）Competence：the idal user s knodgof the rules of his Ianguage. （理想的語(yǔ)言使用者關(guān)于語(yǔ)言規(guī) 則方面的知識(shí)）Performa nee: the actual realizatio n of this kno wled

9、ge in lin guistics com muni cati on.（這種知識(shí)在語(yǔ)言- _ ， : 、 : _ i I .一 -交流中的具體實(shí)現(xiàn)）What is language? 什么是語(yǔ)言A The defi niti on of Ian guage性、用于人類交流的語(yǔ)音符號(hào)系統(tǒng)。）a） System: comb ined together accordi ng to rules （根據(jù)規(guī)貝 U 組合在一起）b） Arbitrary: no in tri nsic connection betwee n a lin guistic symbol and what the symbol

10、sta nds for（語(yǔ)言符號(hào)和 符號(hào)所代表的事物之間沒有內(nèi)在的必然的聯(lián)系）c） Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages （所有語(yǔ)言的首要媒介都是聲音）d） Human: Ianguage is human-specific （語(yǔ)言是人類所獨(dú)有的）B Design features （unique properties） : the defining properties of human Ianguage that distinguish it from anyanimal system of communication （

11、識(shí)別特征是指人類語(yǔ)言區(qū)別于任何動(dòng)物交際系統(tǒng)的本質(zhì)特征）1Arbitrari ness （任意性）There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form （either sound or word） and its meaning.While Ianguage is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.（意義和語(yǔ)音之間沒有什么邏輯的聯(lián)系；雖 然是任意性的，但并非完全任意）a）echo of the sounds of objects oractiviti

12、es ono matopoeic words（擬聲詞）b）some compo und words （某些復(fù)合詞）2Productivity （能產(chǎn)性，創(chuàng)造性）Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by itsusers. （Creativity or ope n-en ded ness）Duality | （雙重結(jié)構(gòu)性，兩重性或二元性）Language is organized at two levels or layers sim

13、ultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure ofsounds which are meanin gless. The higher level is morpheme or word （double articulation!）語(yǔ)言是一 -個(gè)系統(tǒng)，包含兩組結(jié)構(gòu)或者兩個(gè)層面。在較低/基本層面存在著語(yǔ)音結(jié)構(gòu)，其自身沒有什么意義；較高層面存在著 意義單位；結(jié)構(gòu)的雙重性/語(yǔ)言的雙層性）4Displacement （跨時(shí)空性，移位性）Lan guage can be used to refer to con texts removed fro

14、m the immediate situati ons of the speaker （refer topast and future time and to other locations）5Cultural tran siti on （文化傳遞性）it 指 一個(gè)話語(yǔ)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n com muni cati on.（語(yǔ)言是一個(gè)具有任意3While human capacity for Ianguage has a genetic basis （everyone was born

15、with the ability to acquire a Ianguage）, the details of any Ian guage system are not gen etically tran smitted, but in stead have to be taught Wndlearnt.The above 5 properties may be take n as the core features of huma n Ian guage.歡迎下載歡迎下載4Chapter 2 Phonology 音位學(xué)A Te defi niti? n of phon etics(語(yǔ)音學(xué))P

16、honetics：the study of the phonic medium of Ian guage: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in theworld s Ianguag 是指對(duì)語(yǔ)言的語(yǔ)音媒介進(jìn)行的研究，它關(guān)注語(yǔ)言世界中的所有語(yǔ)音)Articulatory phonetiT the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué))Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speec

17、h as sound waves in the a(聽覺語(yǔ)音學(xué)) Auditory(or perceptual) phonetics|: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds 聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué))B Orga ns of speech (發(fā)音器官)Voiceless:清音 when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.Voiced (Voicing): 濁音 when the vocal c

18、ords 聲帶 are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes themapart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.All the English vowels 元音 are typically voiced (voicing).The importa nt cavities:The phary ngeal cavity 咽腔The oral cavity 口腔The n asal cavity 鼻腔其他部位：Lips 唇 1, teeth 齒 2, tee

19、th ridgeveolus 齒齦 3, hard palate 硬腭 4, soft palate (velum)軟腭 5, uvula小舌 6, tip of tongue 舌尖 7, blade of tongue 舌面 8, back of tongue 舌后 9, vocal cords 聲帶 10C Orthographic representation of speech sounds : Broad and narrow transcriptions (語(yǔ)音的正字法表征：寬式/窄式標(biāo)音)IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Associati

20、on 國(guó)際語(yǔ)音協(xié)會(huì) /國(guó)際音標(biāo))Broad transcription|: the transcription with letter-symbols only (代表字母的符號(hào))Narrow transcription| the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (變音符)E.g.:lli:f-a clear l (no diacritic)lbild-a dark l ()lhelp-a den tal l()ppit-an aspirated p?(h表示送飛)pspit-an un aspira

21、ted p (no diacritic)nb tna syllabic nasal n()D Classificati on of En glish consonants (英語(yǔ)輔音的分類)In terms of manner of articulati on根據(jù)發(fā)音方法分 (the manner in which obstructi on is created)1Stops 閉塞音:the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptlyp/b, t/d, k/g2Fricatives 摩擦音:the obstruction

22、is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the monthf/v, s/z, /3, 9/ S, (approximant)3Affricates 塞擦音:the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives t / /d34Liquids 流音:the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or pa

23、rts theton gue and the roof of the mouthl a lateral sound; r retroflex5Glides 滑音:w, j (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + happroxima ntsof歡迎下載56Nasals 鼻音:the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through itm, n, n歡迎下載6Phonemic contrast, comdistribution, minimal2、互補(bǔ)分布、By plac

24、e of articulation 根據(jù)發(fā)音部位分 (the place where obstruction is created)1bilabial 雙唇音:upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstruct ions p/b, w (velar)2labiodentals 唇齒音：the lower lip and the upper teeth f/v3dental 齒音:the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth 0/4alveolar 齒齦音:the fro nt

25、 part of the ton gue on the alveolar ridge t/d, s/z, n, l, r5palatal 腭音:tongue in the middle of the palate 0/S,t / /d3, j6velars 軟腭因:the back of the tongue against the velum k, g, n7glottal 喉音:the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx hE Classification of En glish vowels(英語(yǔ)元音的分類

26、)1The highest position of the tongue : front, central, back;2The ope nn ess of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-ope n, ope n;3The roundn ess (shape) of the month (the lips):All the front, central vowels are unrounded vowels except All the back vowels, except : are roun ded vowels4The length of the

27、 sound : long vowels & short vowelsLary nx(te nse) or (lax)Mon ophth on gs, diphth ongsCardi nal vowelsF The defi ngi on of pho no logy (音位學(xué))Phoneticsis interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, ho、theydiffer from each other, what phon etic features

28、they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonologyl on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular Ianguages; it aims to discoverhow speech sounds in a Ian guage form patter ns and how these sounds are used to con vey meaning lin guisticcom muni catio n.G_Phone, phonem

29、e, and allophone (音素、音位、音位變體)Phonea phone is a phonetic unit or segment (因素是一個(gè)語(yǔ)音單位或者說(shuō)語(yǔ)音段)Phoneme: a phon eme is a phono logical un it; it is a unit of disti nctive value, it is an abstract un it.(音位是 一個(gè)音位學(xué)的單位，而且是一個(gè)有區(qū)別意義的單位，是一個(gè)抽象的單位)Alloph onethe differe nt pho nes which can represe nt a phon eme in

30、differe nt phon etic en vir onments arecalled the alloph ones of that pho neme.(在不同的語(yǔ)音環(huán)境下代表某個(gè)音位的音素被稱為該音位的音位變 體)in歡迎下載7occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.When a group of words canbe differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme

31、（always in the same position）, then all ofthese words con stitute a mini mal sets.I Some rules in pho no logy1sequential rules 序列規(guī)則Phon otactics of 3 con so nants occurri ng in on set 如果三個(gè)輔音都出現(xiàn)在詞首，必須遵循以下三條規(guī)則:No1:_/s/第一個(gè)音位一定是/s/_voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/ 第二個(gè)音位一定是 /p/, /t/, /k/_approximants: /r/,

32、 /l/, /w/, /j/ 第三個(gè)音位一定是 /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/No2：The affricates t/,d3 and the sibilants s,z,sare0rt to be followed by another sibilants.2assimilation rules 同化規(guī)貝 UCo-articulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is calledco-articulati on.Assimilation & eli

33、sion effects 元音省略Assimilati on: two pho nemes occur in seque nee and some aspect of one phon eme is take n or copied bythe otherE.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound 鼻音化現(xiàn)象 deletion rule/Elisio n 省略規(guī)則Definition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate

34、 pronunciation of a word inisolati onE.g. delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal consonan 省略詞末鼻輔音前的 g音J Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）1Stress 重音Word stress & sentence stressThe stress of the En glish compo unds always on the first eleme nt2Tone 聲調(diào)Tones are pitch variations, which are ca

35、used by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Pitch variati ons can dist in guish meaning just like morpheme 豫音素一樣可以區(qū)別意義 Tone Ianguage, like Chin ese, has four to nes 漢語(yǔ)就是一 -種典型的聲調(diào)語(yǔ)言， 有四個(gè)音調(diào) Level, rise, fall-rise,fall 陰平 陽(yáng)平 上聲 去聲3In to nation 語(yǔ)調(diào)When pitch, stress and sound length are t

36、ied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they arecollectively known as inton ati on.Phonemic contrast：when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguimeaning, they_ re in phonemic contrast.E.g. pin & bin /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe /p/ vs. /b/（要會(huì)

37、判斷?。?two or more tha n two alloph ones of the same pho nemes are said toshComplementary distributionin complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environmerbesides they do not disti nguish meaning.:whe n two differe nt forms are ide ntical in every

38、 way except for one sound segme nt whichbet,Minimal pair歡迎下載8En glish: the four basic types of inton ati on, or the four tones 四種語(yǔ)調(diào)The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall tone 降調(diào) 聲調(diào) 將聲調(diào) 升降調(diào)9Chapter 3 Morphology 形態(tài)學(xué)A The defi niti on of morphologyMorphology is a bra

39、nch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by whichwords are formed.（指對(duì)詞的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)以及構(gòu)詞規(guī)則的研究）Morpheme 詞素 the most basic element of meaning.（意義的最基本要素）（A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function 最小的意義單位或者語(yǔ)法功能 ）B Free morphemes & bound morphemes （自由詞素和黏著詞素）can sta n

40、d by themselves as sin gle wordsLexical morphemes n.a.v & functional morphemes conj.prep.art.pron.:can not no rmally sta nd alone, but which are typically attached to ano ther formDerivational morphemes 派生詞素affix 詞綴（suffix, infix, prefix） + root 后綴中綴 前綴 + 詞根In flecti onal morphemes 曲折詞素 8 types

41、of in flecti onal morphemes in En glishNoun+ - ss possessive 所有格;plural 復(fù)數(shù)Verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en 3dperson present singula 第三人稱單數(shù);present participle 現(xiàn)在分詞;past tense 過去式,past participle 過去分詞Adj + -er, -est comparative 比較級(jí);superlative 最高級(jí)C Derivational vs. Inflectional派生（范疇/語(yǔ)類）和曲折（語(yǔ)法標(biāo)志）In flecti ona

42、l morphemes n ever cha nge the grammatical category of a wore 只表示語(yǔ)法標(biāo)志（時(shí)態(tài)、數(shù)、格）In flecti onal morphemes in flue nce the whole category!司的范疇;Derivati onal morphemes are oppositeOrder: root （stem） + derivatio nal + in flectio nal 詞根 / 詞干 + 派生 + 曲折D Morphological Rules 形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則（詞的構(gòu)成方式詞素是怎樣組合成為詞）N. +ly a.; A

43、. +ly adv.; guard overge neralizati onE Morphs and allomorphs 語(yǔ)素和語(yǔ)素變體the actual forms used to realize morphemes:a set of morphs, all of which are versi ons of one morphemea morpheme may have alter nateshapes or phon etic forms.e.g. map-maps s dog-dogs z watch-watches iz mouse-mice ai ox-oxen n tooth

44、-teethsheep-sheep Each of the un derl ined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme. F Word-formationprocess （構(gòu)詞法）1Coin age the inven tio n of totally new terms （創(chuàng)造全新的詞）2Borrow ing the tak ing over of words form other Ian guages3Compoundinga joining of two separate words to produce a single fo

45、rm （組成復(fù)合詞）4Ble ndingtak ing over the begi nning of one word and joining it to the end of other word5Clipp inga word of more tha n one syllable reduced to a shorter form6Back formatio n a process by which new words are formed by tak ing away the suffix of an exist ing word7Conv ersi on category cha n

46、ge, functional shift8Acronyms new words are formed from the in itial letters of a set of other words歡迎下載FreemorphmesBound morphemesMorphsAllomorphs歡迎下載109Derivatio n the new words are formed by the additi on of affixes to the roots, stems, or word(添加詞綴)10Abbreviati on a shorte ned form of a word or

47、phrase which represe nts the complete form (縮短原詞)Chapter 4 Syntax 句法學(xué)A The definition of syntaxSyntax: A branch of lin guistics that studies how words are comb ined to form senten ces and rules that gover nthe formation of senten ces(句法學(xué)是研究詞是如何組成句子以及如何支配句子構(gòu)成規(guī)則的一個(gè)語(yǔ)言學(xué)分 支)C Types of senten CSSimple sen

48、tence 簡(jiǎn)單句:consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and standsalone as its own senten ce.Coordin ate (Compo und) sentenc列(復(fù)合)句:contains two clauses joined by a lin ki ng word called coordin at ing conjunctions, such asand , by , or Complex sentence!復(fù)雜句:contains two, or mor

49、e, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the otherEmbedded clause 子句matrix clause 主句1subordi nator fun cti ons as a grammatical unit may be completeBlSome categories范疇)Syntactic categories I：refer to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function, such as thesubject or the p

50、redicate 句 法范疇Lexical categories: (parts of speech 詞匯范疇Major lexical categories (ope n categories):N. V. Adj. Adv.Minor lexical categories (closed categories): Det. Aux., Prep. Pron. Conj. I nt.Phrasal categories!：NP, VP, PP, AP 短語(yǔ)范疇C Combi natio nal rulesAre small in nu mber Yield all the possible

51、senten cesRule out the impossible ones1phrase structure rules (rewrite rules)(短語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則)S NP VP(A sentence con sists of, or is rewritte n as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)NP(det.限定詞)(Adj.) N (PP) (S)“”：包括 / 分為VP(qual.修飾詞)V (NP) (POP) (S)“()”：內(nèi)部的成分可以省略AP(deg 程度詞)A (PP) (S)“”：可以選擇附加其他補(bǔ)語(yǔ)PP (deg.)P Ni2X

52、- bar theoryHead an obligatory word that givers the phrase its n ameXP or X-phraseXP (Specifier) X (compleme nt)Formula:X” Spec XX-bar theory (X-bar schema)XX complD Tra nsformatio nal rules 轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)貝 UD-structure and S-structure 深層結(jié)構(gòu)和表層結(jié)構(gòu)歡迎下載11Deep structure: the structure that correspnds most closely t

53、o the meaningful grouping of words. It isabstract, which gives the meaning of a sentence and which itself is not pronounceable.Surface structure: lin ear arra ngeme nt of words as they are pronounc ed. A surface structure is relativelcon crete, and gives the form of a sentence as it is used in com m

54、uni cati on.Two levels of syn tactic represe ntati on of a sentence structure:One that exists before moveme nt takes placeThe other that occurs after moveme nt takes placeFormal li nguistic explorati on:D-structure : phrase structure rules + lexiconSentence at the level of D-structureThe applicati o

55、n of syn tactic moveme nt rules tran sforms a sentence fromD-structure level to S-structure levelTran sformatio nal-ge nerative line of an alysisE S yn tactic Relati ons Seque ntial(s yn tagmatic) relati ons 組合關(guān)系The lin ear orderi ng of the words and the phrases with in a sentenceSubstitutional(para

56、digmatic) relations 聚合關(guān)系)If the words or phrases in a sentence can be replaced by words and phrases outside the sentenceand the result ing sentence is still grammatical, the n we say the replac ing forms and replaced forms haveparadigmatic relati ons.F Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis )IC

57、 Analysis is to simply divide a sentence into its constituent elements without at first knowing what these elements are.The principle is that we take a sentence and cut it into two and then cut these parts into two and continue with thissegmentation until we reach the smallest grammatical unit, the

58、morphemesLabeled IC an alysissyn tactic categories criteria in judgi ng syn tactic categories:1) morphological features(inflectional and derivational affixes they take) (number,case gender etc.)2) syn tactic con texts in which the lin guistic forms can occurCategorythedeterm iner (Det.)boynoun (n.)o

59、fte nqualifierplaysverb (v.)aDet.verydegree word (Deg)smallmodifierballn.must, shouldauxiliary (Aux.)and, but, orconj un cti on (Con.)G _The_hierarchical_structure_of sentenceA sentence can be an alyzed in to con stitue nts. Conv ersely, con stitue nts at differe nt levels can comb ine tofori歡迎下載12S

60、enten cesare an alyzed into clausesare an alyzed into phrasesare an alyzed into wordsare an alyzed into morphemessenten cesSo traditio nally, sen ten ces are assumed to bemade of in dividual words in a lin ear direct ionChapter 5 Semantics 語(yǔ)義學(xué)A The defi n tion of sema nticsSema nticsrm thelinguistic

61、 Minto view （對(duì)意義的研究）回 Some views concerning the study of meaning關(guān)于意義研究的一些觀點(diǎn)1the naming theory 命名論2the conceptualist view 概念論Symbol/Form （words）符號(hào) / 形式3contextualism : John Firth 語(yǔ)境論4behaviorism Bloomfield 行為主義論 based on contextualist viewS: stimulusr: resp onseJillJackS- r.s- R（the small letters r,

62、s speech）（the capitalized letter R, S practical events）C Sense and reference （意義和指稱）Sens&is concerned with the in here nt meaning of the lin guistic form, abstract and de-c on textualized 主要涉及語(yǔ)言形式的固有意義，是抽象，不與語(yǔ)境相關(guān)的）Refereneemeans what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it de

63、als with the relationshipbetween the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience（指語(yǔ)言形式在現(xiàn)實(shí)物質(zhì)世界中的 事物，是語(yǔ)言成分和非語(yǔ)言的經(jīng)驗(yàn)世界之間的關(guān)系）Moving starI once was bitte n by a dog.Morning starMind you. There is a dog over there.D Major sense relati ons （主要的意義關(guān)系）1synonymy 同義現(xiàn)象the sameness or close simila

64、rity of meaningsenten cesare used to buildclausesare used to buildphrasesare used to buildwordsare used to buildmorphemesRefere nt （real object）所指Thought/refere neecon cept 思想 / 指稱歡迎下載13a. dialectal synonyms 方言同義詞-synonyms used in differe nt regional dialects （美式 / 英式英語(yǔ)）b. stylistic synonyms 文體同義詞-

65、synonyms differi ng in style （問題、正式度不同）c. synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative mea ning 情感或評(píng)價(jià)意義不同的同義詞（褒貶義）d. collocatio nal synon yms 搭配同義詞（詞語(yǔ)搭配、用法）e. sema ntically differe nt synonyms 語(yǔ)義不同的同義詞（意義上稍有不同）2polysemy 多義現(xiàn)象一- one word that has more tha n one related meaning3homonymy 同音異義Homo

66、ph on es: whe n two words are ide ntical in sounc 同音異義 發(fā)音一樣 Homographs: when two wordsare identical in spelling 同形異義 拼寫一樣 Complete homony ms: whe n two words are ide ntical both inspelli ng and in Soun（完全同音異義詞4hyp onymy 下義關(guān)系-in clusive ness 包含關(guān)系The word which is more gen eral in meaning is called the superordi nat 上坐標(biāo)詞The word which is more specific in meaning is called hyp onym. Co-hyp onym 下坐標(biāo)詞5antonymy 反義詞- oppositenessGradable an to nyms 等級(jí)反義詞（有中間詞，程度不同）Complementary antonyms 互補(bǔ)反義詞（兩個(gè)極端 dead/alive，male/female）Relati onal o