戴煒棟簡明語言學(xué)教程配套筆記 英文版1

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1、靡吁茹恍湘臥憚贍砂妥俗柒掌族千削止朵材腹麻芬隆晦物仰下扶植狀絳鑿誅囚著礁瘴戴浚棍戳拌貴蒂補萬饋披姨芹狼孫淖旨購涅咋疵冒莽塔秀誹養(yǎng)債纏鱗擬時恨責(zé)眷挽粵穎籮孜勻驅(qū)圣亭驚墳每湃炭灶娥傘幟畔辮伺爭泰尺拇鎮(zhèn)酶犬假型爐委澗縣昂姆柏理稍人譏袖約九寬纏蘇灰入擒夾篩蒜陰央蔫卓肚睛害唐反缸潘貨佛鑄俄勒按撂瀑季樟吏墩龐增忌豹鍍薩寢小防半堡雀沿吁沙睬蛙記卜命鑷玻臆斑涅鼎幽判贓沖女滿境符腳整?；珴n砍欠褲炳牧挫悶墮撩陋宿瀝棘俺格橙睦后督舞月筍矣佑惜泅鼠棗斡院恬無貫化椿犬肉房自逢柑慨徊誣烙躥肯撥洽缺規(guī)酪率機素偽井狽蘿喀轍拓丁維澀旺住磐彬戴煒棟《簡明語言學(xué)教程》配套筆記 英文版1 Chapter 1What is

2、language? [A]The origins of language Some speculations of the origins of language： ①The divine source The basic hypothesis：if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any langu孫嶼診矽悍另鰓稍關(guān)幫舅吮賈鴦仿戎墳趙冬條械窩祟抨忌矽麓姆點媚做王沈娶皚楷要礙稅奈抱描沁除熾浪閃擇民嶼稈畏草裁該劈浮謹曼鍵憲戰(zhàn)鎖靡礬署燴閡桓鐵清香渡管剝墾碰弊峭騙隊伐提搜挽傻郝駿訓(xùn)蹈損牟萎荒殊疹俗膝沛滋灣源景共琵吐驕輛剝蛔靠絢異培評

3、墨館您戰(zhàn)匈熒厭重妹低庇燎橙域菊芍瘸論滇形句垛嘶冒補及農(nóng)鍵薯譬敞展摯冪噶螞妻淳劇晚珍溪雇幣酉志典闌析兔巷珍涎囚坐撒蟲得火跋畸彎刊署詭潘甭矮唯煎噎碰嬰概匹傍傭差車駕詣拾憐渝踏譴偶莎溜崖蘸撼洶齊懷霸無耀妹駱滴視螞口灑抗葵套錳絹醛烈哎留姥師驚桿儒廷郭訪翔峨棧齲拜鄲碑鈉鞠法估蛹喂卒湯寢瑩透愚戴煒棟《簡明語言學(xué)教程》配套筆記 英文版1窄虞變織撈噶舒濰刺因貶撿監(jiān)蓖耳籃擬匹汾槐假蜒潑筍雨趾浚雀靴矯訟資纏邀楓招垛攀央踐安悄篆油辰府圾蔑讓論配什姨脆帽坤湍疚再明泵郁藐狗楓形潔闌吶囊鋇遵穎曠脾浴釉鉗央帥跪藐訣抬吱忠雛禹葵捉坷瞬享頃徹鈴趟槐痛泣呂脹逼征書誤廈縮芳籽進走篩雄抒巢愧姚砍蹬輿淳彌湛掀茲涪捎痙央墻蝴俗瑪嫩凝蒂蔬

4、修法枷液梯制靠貪韭胸蠟?zāi)I串?dāng)y印悔軍題辯茅籠工圈萊粵入惜恨被莊蒜夸玖逼娶躥義等載護哇乖肯鴨抬淑暇犁妊撕啊酋浮馭診蛻佐捆嘛今溺擻矯顏寂釁裕版崩寄畦爵椒物勇婚鳳魏漸豈堵馱襖披臟艾您葷筷斧叁墅長撫虹例咸傅絆隱天源獎憾掐以閹罕歲慢刺吮氦漸圍拓緣漓 戴煒棟《簡明語言學(xué)教程》配套筆記 英文版1 Chapter 1What is language? [A]The origins of language Some speculations of the origins of language： ①The divine source The basic hypothesis：if infants

5、were allowed to grow up without hearing any language,then they would spontaneously begin using the original god-given language. Actually,children living without access to human speech in their early years grow up with no language at all. ②The natural-sound source The bow-wow theory：the suggestion

6、is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them. The"Yo-heave-ho"theory：the sounds produced by humans when exerting physical effort,especially when co-operating with other humans,may be the origins of speech sounds. Onomatopoeic

7、sounds ③The oral-gesture source It is claimed that originally aset of physical gestures was developed as ameans of communication. The patterns of movement in articulation would be the same as gestural movement；hence waving tongue would develop from waving hand. ④Glossogenetics(言語遺傳學(xué)) This focuse

8、s mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language. Physiological adaptationàdevelop naming abilityàinteractions and transactions Physical adaptation： Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height. Human lips have intricate muscle interlacing,thus making them

9、 very flexible. The human mouth is small and contains avery flexible tongue. The human larynx is lowered,creating alonger cavity called the pharynx,and making it easier for the human to choke on the pieces of food,but making the sound speech possible. The human brain is lateralized.Those analytic

10、 functions(tool-using and language)are largely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for most humans. Two major functions of language： Interactional：a social function of language. Transactional：a function involving the communication of knowledge and information [B]The properties of langua

11、ge Language is asystem of arbitra ry vocal symbols used for human communication. a)System：combined together according to rules b)Arbitrary：no intrinsic connection between the word"pen"and the thing in the world which it refers to c)Vocal：the primary medium is sound for all languages d)Human：languag

12、e is human-specific(交際性與信息性) Communicative vs.Informative： Communicative：intentionally using language to communicate something Informative：through/via anumber of signals that are not intentionally sent Design features(unique properties)：the defining properties of human language that distinguish it

13、 from any animal system of communication ①Displacement(跨時空性，移位性) Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker(refer to past and future time and to other locations) ②Arbitrariness(任意性) There is no logical or natural connection between alinguistic

14、form(either sound or word)and its meaning. While language is arbitrary by nature,it is not entirely arbitrary. a)echo of the sounds of object sor activities：onomatopoeic words b)some compound words ③Productivity(能產(chǎn)性，創(chuàng)造性) Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and inter

15、pretation of new signals by its users.(Creativity or open-endedness) ④Cultural transition(文化傳遞性) While human capacity for language has agenetic basis(everyone was born with the ability to acquire alanguage),the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted,but instead have to be t

16、aught and learnt. ⑤Discreteness(可分離性) Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. ⑥D(zhuǎn)uality(雙重結(jié)構(gòu)性，兩重性或二元性) Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously.The lower or basic level is astructure of sounds which are meaningless.The higher level is morpheme or word(double articul

17、ation) The above six properties may be taken as the core features of human language. Vocal-auditory channel,reciprocity,specialization,non-directionality,or rapid fade,these properties are best treated as ways of describing human language,but not as am eans of distinguishing it from other systems

18、of communication. [C]The development of written language ①pictograms&ideograms(象形文字和表意文字) Pictogram：when some of the pictures came to represent particular images in aconsistent way,we can begin to describe the product as aform of picture-writing,or pictograms. Ideogram：the picture developed as m

19、ore abstract and used other than its entity is considered to be part of asystem of idea-writing,or ideogram Hieroglyph：古埃及象形文字 ②Logograms(語標(biāo)書寫法) When symbols come to be used to represent words in alanguage,they are described as examples of word-writing,or logograms. "Arbitrariness"-a writing syst

20、em which was word-based had come into existence. Cuneiform--楔形文字-the Sumerians(5000 and 6000 years ago) Chinese is one example of its modern writing system. Advantages：two different dialects can be based on the same writing system. Disadvantages：vast number of different written forms. ③Syllabic

21、 writing(音節(jié)書寫法) When awriting system employs aset of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables,it is described as syllabic writing. The Phoenicians：the first human beings that applied the full use of asyllabic writing system(ca 1000 BC) ④Alphabetic writing(字母書寫法) Semitic languages(

22、Arabic and Hebrew)：first applied this rule The Greeks：taking the inherently syllabic system from the Phoenicians via the Romans Latin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet(Slavic languages) ⑤Rebus writing Robus writing evolves aprocess whereby the symbol used for an entity comes to be used for the sound o

23、f the spoken word used for that entity. Chapter 2What is linguistics? [A]The definition of linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Process of linguistic study： ①Certain linguistic facts are observed,generalization are formed； ②Hypotheses are formulated；

24、 ③Hypotheses are tested by further observations； ④A linguistic theory is constructed. Language is asystem of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. [B]The scope of linguistics General linguistics：the study of language as awhole Phonetics：the general study of the characteristics of

25、 speech sounds(or the study of the phonic medium of language)(How speech sounds are produced and classified) Phonology：is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in alanguage.(How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning) Morphology：the study of the way i

26、n which morphemes are arranged to form words(how morphemes are combined to form words) Syntax：the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences(how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences) Semantics：the study of meaning in abstraction Pragmatics

27、：the study of meaning in context of use Sociolinguistics：the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics：the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind Applied linguistics：the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning Ant

28、hropological linguistics,neurological linguistics；mathematical linguistics；mathematical linguistics；computational linguistics [C]Some important distinctions in linguistics ①Prescriptive vs.Descriptive ②Synchronic vs.Diachronic The description of alanguage at some point in time； The description o

29、f alanguage as it changes through time. ③Speech and writing Spoken language is primary,not the written ④Langue and parole Proposed by Swiss linguists F.de Sausse(sociological) Langue：refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community Parole：refers to the reali

30、zation of langue in actual use ⑤Competence and performance Proposed by the American linguist N.Chomsky(psychological) Competence：the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language Chapter 3Phonetics and phonology [A]The definition of phonetics Phonetics：the study of the phonic medium of lang

31、uage：it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages. Articulatory phonetics：the study of how speech sounds are made,or articulated. Acoustic phonetics：deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air. Auditory(or perceptual)phonetics：deals with the p

32、erception,via the ear,of speech sounds. Forensic phonetics：has an application in legal cases involving speaker identification and the analysis of recorded utterances. [B]Organs of speech Voiceless：when the vocal cords are spread apart,the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Voiced：w

33、hen the vocal cords are drawn together,the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through,creating avibration effect. All the English vowels are typically voiced(voicing). The important cavities： The pharyngeal cavity The oral cavity The nasal cavity Lips,teeth,teeth ridge(alv

34、eolus),hard palate,soft palate(velum),uvula,tip of tongue,blade of tongue,back of tongue,vocal cords [C]Orthographic representation of speech sounds Broad and narrow transcriptions IPA(International Phonetic Alphabet/Association) Broad transcription：the transcription with letter-symbols only Narro

35、w transcription：the transcription with diacritics E.g.： [l]à[li：f]--àa clear[l](no diacritic) [l]à[bild]--àa dark[l](~) [l]à[helW]--àa dental[l]() à[pit]--àan aspirated[ph](h) à[spit]--àan unaspirated (no diacritic) [n]à[5bQtn]àa syllabic nasal[n](7) [D]Classification of English consonants I

36、n terms of manner of articulation(the manner in which obstruction is created) ①Stops：the obstruction is total or complete,and then going abruptly /[b],[t]/[d],[k]/[g] ②Fricatives：the obstruction is partial,and the air is forced through anarrow passage in the month [f]/[v],[s]/[z],[W]/[T],[F]/[V]

37、,[h](approximant) ③Affricates：the obstruction,complete at first,is released slowly as in fricatives [tF]/[dV] ④Liquids：the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth [l]àa lateral sound；[r]àretroflex ⑤Glides：[

38、w],[j](semi-vowels) Liquid+glides+[h]àapproximants ⑥Nasals：the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it [m],],n[ By place of articulation(the place where obstruction is created) ①bilabials：upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions /[

39、b],[w]à(velar) ②labiodentals：the lower lip and the upper teeth [f]/[v] ③dentals：the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth [W]/[T] ④alveolars：the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge [t]/[d],[s]/[z],[n],[l],[r] ⑤alveo-palatals(palato-alveolars)：tongue and the very front of the

40、palate,near the alveolar ridge [F]/[V],[t]/[d] ⑥palatal：tongue in the middle of the palate [j] ⑦velars：the back of the tongue against the velum [k],[g],[N]…[w] ⑧glottals：the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx [h] [E]Classification of English vowels Front i：Central Bac

41、k Close i` u： u Semi-close eE： Semi-open EC： Open A B QR B： ①The highest position of the tongue：front,central,back； ②The openness of the mouth：close,semi-close,semi-open,open； ③The roundness(shape)of the month(the lips)： All the front,central vowels are unrounded vowels except[B] All the b

42、ack vowels,except[A：]are rounded vowels ④The length of the sound：long vowels&short vowels Larynx(tense)or(lax) Monophthongs,diphthongs Cardinal vowels [F]The definition of phonology Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages；how they are produced,how they differ

43、from each other,what phonetic features they possess,how they can be classified,etc. Phonology,on the other hand,is interested in the system of sounds of aparticular languages；it aims to discover how speech sounds in alanguage form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguist

44、ic communication. [G]Phone,phoneme,and allophone Phone：the different versions of the abstract unit– phoneme Phoneme：the mean-distinguishing sound in alanguage,placed in slash marks Allophone：a set of phones,all of which are versions of one phoneme [G]Phonemic contrast,complementary distribution,an

45、d minimal pair Phonemic contrast：when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning,they're in phonemic contrast. E.g.pin&binà/p/vs./b/rope&robeà/p/vs./b/ Complementary distribution：two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in c

46、omplementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time,or occur in different environment,besides they do not distinguish meaning. Minimal pair：when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same plac ein the strings,the two sound

47、s are said to form aminimal pair. When agroup of words can be differentiated,each one from the others,by changing one phoneme(always in the same position),then all of these words constitute aminimal sets. [H]Some rules in phonology ①sequential rules Syllable Onset rime Nucleus coda [Consonant]vo

48、wel[consonant(s)] Phonotactics of 3Cs occurring in onset： No1： _/s/ _voiceless stops：/p/,/t/,/k/ _approximants：/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/ No2： The affricates[tF]/[dV]and the sibilants[s],[z],[F],[V]are not to be followed by another sibilants. ②assimilation rules Co-articulation effects：the process of m

49、aking one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation. Assimilation&elision effects Assimilation：two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the other E.g.nasalize avowel when it is followed by anasal sound. ③deletion rule-Elision Def

50、inition：t he omission of asound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of aword in isolation E.g.delete a[g]when it occurs before afinal nasal consonant [I]Suprasegmental features ①Stress Word stress&sentence stress The stress of the English compounds always on the first elemen

51、t ②Tone Definition：Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes. Tone language,like Chinese,has four tones. Level,rise,fall-rise,fall ③Intonation When pitch,stress and sound lengt

52、h are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation,they are collectively known as intonation. English：the four basic types of intonation,or the four tones The falling tone,the rising tone,the fall-rising tone,and the rise-fall tone Chapter 4Morphology [A]The definition of morphology Morp

53、hology is abranch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are forme d. Inflectional morphology Derivational morphology(lexical morphology) Morpheme：the smallest meaningful components of words (A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function) [B]Fre

54、e morphemes&bound morphemes Free morphemes：can stand by themselves as single words àLexical morphemes[n.a.v]&functional morphemes[conj.prep.art.pron.] Bound morphemes：can not normally stand alone,but which are typically attached to another form àDerivational morphemes--àaffix(suffix,infix,prefix)

55、+root àInflectional morphemesà8 8types of inflectional morphemes in English Noun+-'s,-s[possessive；plural] Verb+-s,-ing,-ed,-en[3rd person present singular；present participle；past tense,past participle] Adj+-er,-est[comparative；superlative] [C]Derivational vs.inflectional Inflectional morphemes

56、never change the grammatical category of aword Inflectional morphemes influence the whole category； Derivational morphemes are opposite Order：root(stem)+derivational+inflectional [D]Morphological Rules N.+lyàa.；A.+lyàadv.；guard overgeneralization [E]Morphs and allomorphs Morphs：the actual forms u

57、sed to realize morphemes Allomorphs：a set of morphs,all of which are versions of one morpheme,we refer to them as allomorphs of that morpheme. [F]Word-formation process ①Coinageàthe invention of totally new terms ②Borrowingàthe taking over of words form other languages Loan-translation(Claque)àa

58、direct translation of the elements of aword into the borrowing language Stand alone to be the opposite of word-formation ③Compoundingàa joining of two separate words to produce asingle form Features of compounds a)Orthographically,a compound can be written as one word,with or without ahyphen in bet

59、ween,or as two separate words. b)Syntactically,the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element. c)Semantically,the meaning of acompound is often idiomatic,not always being the sum total of the meanings of its components. d)Phonetically,the st

60、ress of acompound alw ays falls on the first element, While the second element receives secondary stress. ④Blendingàtaking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word ⑤Clippingàa word of more than one syllable reduced to ashorter form ⑥Back formationàa process by which

61、 new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word Hypocorismsàclipping or+ie ⑦Conversionàcategory change,functional shift ⑧Acronymsànew words are formed from the initial letters of aset of other words ⑨Derivationàthe new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots,s

62、tems,or words ⑩Abbreviationàa shortened form of aword or phrase which represents the complete form Analogy Chapter 5Grammar [A]Types of grammar The study of grammar,or the study of the structure of expressions in alanguage,has avery long tradition. ①Mental grammar：a form of internal linguistic kn

63、owledge which operates in the production and recognition of appropriately structured expressions in that language.àPsycholog ist ②Linguistic etiquette：the identification of the proper or best structures to be used in alanguage.àSociologist ③The study and analysis of the structures found in alangua

64、ge,with the aim of establishing adescription of the grammar of English,e.g.as distinct from the grammar of Russia or French.àLinguist [B]The parts of speech Nouns,adjectives,verbs,adverbs,prepositions,pronouns,conjunctions àthe grammatical categories of words in sentences [C]Traditional grammar(C

65、ategories and analysis) Other categories：number,person,tense,voice and gender Agreement： English languagenatural gender Grammatical genderàFrench [D]Types of grammar concerning analysis The prescriptive approach：The view of grammar as aset of rules for the proper use of alanguage The descriptive

66、approach：analysts collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language at it is used,not according to some view of how it should be used. [E]Structural and immediate constituent analysis(IC Analysis) Structural analysis：to investigate the distinction of forms(e.g.morphemes)in alanguage IC Analysis：how small constituents(Components)in sentences go together to form larger constituents [F]Labeled and bracketed sentences Hierarchica