本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文翻譯板栗切口機(jī)的設(shè)計(jì)院 （ 系 、 部 ） 名 稱 ： 歐 美 學(xué) 院 機(jī) 電 科 學(xué) 與 工 程 系 專 業(yè) 名 稱 ： 機(jī) 械 設(shè) 計(jì) 制 造 及 其 自 動(dòng) 化 學(xué) 生 姓 名 ：學(xué) 生 學(xué) 號(hào) ：指 導(dǎo) 教 師 ：年 12 月 10 日學(xué)院教務(wù)處制畢業(yè)論文（外文翻譯）0美國(guó)板栗產(chǎn)業(yè)羅伯特·C.霍赫穆特、羅伯特·華萊士、彼得 J.van Blokland 和 Jeffrey G.威廉姆森這是原始文件的修訂副本，介紹了生產(chǎn)，銷售，和栗子生長(zhǎng)在東南亞美國(guó)的情況，通過(guò) RD 華萊士和 PJ VanBlockland。佛羅里達(dá)大學(xué)的 1989 年，食品資源經(jīng)濟(jì)系。工作人員報(bào)告。1 序言美國(guó)是少數(shù)幾個(gè)國(guó)家在世界上能生長(zhǎng)栗子和不具有顯著的商業(yè)板栗產(chǎn)業(yè)之一。因?yàn)槊绹?guó)有板栗產(chǎn)業(yè)這樣一個(gè)小的（世界產(chǎn)量的不到 1％）產(chǎn)業(yè)，進(jìn)口到美國(guó)的栗子的數(shù)量與每年的總價(jià)值超逾 2 千萬(wàn)元。新的栗子品種開(kāi)發(fā)，先進(jìn)的傳播，文化的技術(shù)現(xiàn)在允許美國(guó)擴(kuò)大在商業(yè)板栗產(chǎn)業(yè)。栗子可就在佛羅里達(dá)州小農(nóng)誰(shuí)正在尋找他們的業(yè)務(wù)多元化，一個(gè)可行的替代作物。2 歷史農(nóng)作物有很多的歷史重要性，因?yàn)槭澜绺鞯氐氖澄飦?lái)源如栗子。栗子是最早木本作物被馴化了，甚至在中國(guó)詩(shī)歌中提到 5000 余年前的一個(gè)。北美的歐洲殖民者發(fā)現(xiàn)的新大陸幾乎是一個(gè)堅(jiān)實(shí)的板栗林。美國(guó)栗樹(shù)曾經(jīng)在東部森林中最常見(jiàn)的樹(shù)木中，從緬因州到喬治亞州，西至密西西比河。這個(gè)令人驚訝的有用的樹(shù)提供防腐性木材，這是用于幾個(gè)項(xiàng)目，從柵欄柱到家具。板栗樹(shù)也是單一的來(lái)源，除了其美麗的堅(jiān)果作物。但是從東方在 1904 年意外引入的栗疫?。ɡ跻卟【?，在不到 40 年殺害了幾乎所有的美國(guó)栗樹(shù)在美國(guó)。在美國(guó)板栗的損失被認(rèn)為是西方歷史上最偉大的植物災(zāi)害之一。板栗產(chǎn)業(yè)高度發(fā)達(dá)的歐洲，在世界的東方。韓國(guó)和中國(guó)是板栗產(chǎn)業(yè)發(fā)達(dá)的兩個(gè)國(guó)家;同時(shí)這些國(guó)家產(chǎn)生超過(guò) 40％的世界栗子。其他主要的板栗生產(chǎn)國(guó)包括意大利，土耳其，玻利維亞，日本，西班牙和葡萄牙。栗子對(duì)美國(guó)的主要出口國(guó)是意大利，中國(guó)和韓國(guó)。板栗進(jìn)口到美國(guó)的 4,500 噸增加到 2003 年的 5,400 萬(wàn)噸，2004 年同比增長(zhǎng)，表明栗子在美國(guó)的消費(fèi)者的需求在不斷增長(zhǎng)。進(jìn)口到美國(guó)的栗子每年的價(jià)值超過(guò) 2000 萬(wàn)美元。 這是抗栗疫病和生產(chǎn)大，甜堅(jiān)果 - - 新美國(guó) x 中國(guó)雜交板栗品種的發(fā)展有助于使畢業(yè)論文（外文翻譯）1國(guó)內(nèi)板栗產(chǎn)業(yè)在美國(guó)可能的擴(kuò)展，包括在佛羅里達(dá)州。新板栗品種具有毫不遜色與進(jìn)口堅(jiān)果競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的高品質(zhì)特性。然而，美國(guó)商業(yè)板栗產(chǎn)業(yè)是相對(duì)較新;大多數(shù)種植者有不到10 年的經(jīng)驗(yàn)。為板栗生產(chǎn)大國(guó)，包括加利福尼亞州，俄勒岡州，華盛頓州，密歇根州，佛羅里達(dá)州，俄亥俄州和弗吉尼亞州。3 板栗經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)栗子可以是生產(chǎn)力和盈利果園作物。樹(shù)木開(kāi)始后三到五年來(lái)承擔(dān)，而改良品種可以在到期日，從 1000 - 1,500 斤以上的產(chǎn)量每畝每年。螺母從$0.75-2.50 元一斤批發(fā)，（根據(jù)螺母的大?。┖?2-5.00 元一斤零售，供給取決于市場(chǎng)。 國(guó)產(chǎn)栗子的市場(chǎng)一直主要通過(guò)本地或直接的市場(chǎng)銷售方式。一些美國(guó)種植者通過(guò)互聯(lián)網(wǎng)在超過(guò) 10 美元每磅小批量的價(jià)格做廣告的新鮮栗子，但這個(gè)價(jià)格包括聯(lián)邦快遞或 UPS 運(yùn)費(fèi)和手續(xù)費(fèi)。本地的，直接面向消費(fèi)者的銷售可能高達(dá)$4.00 或 5.00 元一斤，但這樣的價(jià)格在銷售大幅下降到經(jīng)紀(jì)人，批發(fā)商，連鎖超市等大型市場(chǎng)。美國(guó)種植栗子數(shù)量大，價(jià)格必須要與進(jìn)口堅(jiān)果競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力，和美國(guó)生產(chǎn)的質(zhì)量必須優(yōu)于質(zhì)素的外國(guó)買(mǎi)家，他們的美國(guó)客戶都習(xí)慣。 在美國(guó)種植栗子作物有達(dá)到美國(guó)市場(chǎng)早于進(jìn)口的栗子，用更好的質(zhì)量控制，并沒(méi)有國(guó)際航運(yùn)的成本優(yōu)勢(shì)。然而，在移動(dòng)大量栗子的成功的關(guān)鍵是通過(guò)市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷，消費(fèi)者和經(jīng)銷商的教育，并與有識(shí)之士在食品配送服務(wù)關(guān)系的發(fā)展。營(yíng)銷是沒(méi)有過(guò)去存在的小種植者很多機(jī)會(huì)，現(xiàn)在可以通過(guò)互聯(lián)網(wǎng)，但有針對(duì)性的市場(chǎng)推廣力度，食品行業(yè)也可以是非常有價(jià)值的。生長(zhǎng)在美國(guó)的四種栗子和他們幾個(gè)雜交種品種?美國(guó)栗子（板栗齒。 ）有小的，甜的堅(jiān)果，直立生長(zhǎng)形式，極易受到栗疫病。?歐洲栗（Catanea）也枯萎病易感，且只能在疫病非疫區(qū)生長(zhǎng)。歐洲板栗樹(shù)有一個(gè)直立的樹(shù)的形式，并從歐洲栗子的堅(jiān)果可以是相當(dāng)不錯(cuò)的一些品種。然而，許多品種及種苗生產(chǎn)堅(jiān)果的味道平淡，或苦，難以剝離。?中國(guó)板栗（板栗）是高度抗枯萎病，有些品種產(chǎn)生良好的規(guī)模和甜蜜味道也很容易剝離的堅(jiān)果。中國(guó)板栗樹(shù)，有時(shí)在生長(zhǎng)形態(tài)挺拔，但很多是低，傳播和多支在地上。?日本栗子（板栗籽）粒小，傳播，產(chǎn)生較大的，可憐的品嘗堅(jiān)果抗枯萎病樹(shù)。日本栗子大多用于雜交。?Chinkapins（數(shù)種）生產(chǎn)小型，甜堅(jiān)果（每毛刺之一） ，通常是灌木狀的形式，不用于商業(yè)螺母生產(chǎn)。在栗屬的成員的關(guān)系非常密切和雜交的容易。雜交提供了一些有前途的商業(yè)品種中最有潛力的。在歐洲，大部分板栗育種已經(jīng)完成，日本 x 歐洲的雜交品種。在日本畢業(yè)論文（外文翻譯）2和韓國(guó)，多數(shù)商業(yè)化生產(chǎn)的今天與中國(guó) x 日本雜交品種。在美國(guó)，一些最近開(kāi)發(fā)的美國(guó) x 中國(guó)混合動(dòng)力車提供的特點(diǎn)，優(yōu)秀的商業(yè)品種為佛羅里達(dá)的組合。圖 1。 美國(guó) x 中國(guó)雜交板栗樹(shù)。5 螺母的質(zhì)量和檔次大?。涸谌魏纹贩N的一個(gè)主要關(guān)注的是生產(chǎn)螺母的大小。對(duì)于營(yíng)銷到一個(gè)新的或預(yù)先包裝市場(chǎng)中，大尺寸是必需的（圖 2） 。雖然美國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)部門(mén)（USDA）沒(méi)有采用任何標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的栗子大小，在 2001 年提出由美國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)部以下尺寸的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)（表 1） 。圖 2。 畢業(yè)論文（外文翻譯）3客戶喜歡較大的個(gè)體堅(jiān)果。進(jìn)口商有時(shí)用于基于每磅堅(jiān)果的數(shù)目（表 2）大小的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。堅(jiān)果超過(guò)每磅 40 支小的都很難通過(guò)大規(guī)模的營(yíng)銷系統(tǒng)（經(jīng)紀(jì)和食品雜貨連鎖店）來(lái)分發(fā)，因?yàn)槊绹?guó)的渴望更大的板栗大?。▓D 3）中。小栗子一般都是在美國(guó)市場(chǎng)不太理想的，并帶來(lái)了更低的價(jià)格。然而，如果該栗子用于烘干，面粉或糖果，大小并不重要。圖 3。 各種螺母尺寸板栗品種之一。味道：味道也很重要。有些品種具有較高的含糖量，甚至生吃。栗子中的碳水化合物轉(zhuǎn)成糖的堅(jiān)果成熟和干燥。栗子烹調(diào)前固化是很重要的，襯托出堅(jiān)果的味道。美國(guó)栗樹(shù)是相當(dāng)甜美的。一些中國(guó)的栗子和美國(guó)雜交種有非常甜美的堅(jiān)果。一些歐洲和中國(guó)的品種，通過(guò)比較，而不是甜的。易于剝離：重要性的第三螺母的特點(diǎn)是容易剝離的螺母。該薄膜或“皮膚” ，圍繞內(nèi)核是苦，吃之前必須拆除。在某些類型的栗子，膠片被嵌到內(nèi)核中，這使得螺母難以剝離，因此，不良的飲食質(zhì)量的粗糙表面。許多歐洲栗子有這樣的不良特性。在法國(guó)區(qū)分栗子的基礎(chǔ)上，容易剝離的類型之間。栗子，栗子原產(chǎn)于地中海，有表面光滑的內(nèi)核，很容易剝離，并具有向內(nèi)生長(zhǎng)的薄膜。該種栗子以更高的價(jià)格在法國(guó)和美國(guó)的商店出售，但是這兩種類型的板栗運(yùn)到美國(guó)，他們是美國(guó)消費(fèi)者的青睞。美國(guó)和中國(guó)的栗子，其雜交種往往有流暢的內(nèi)核和更容易剝離。畢業(yè)論文（外文翻譯）4容易剝離是重要的商業(yè)處理，以及用于接受消費(fèi)者;內(nèi)核一點(diǎn)點(diǎn)消失在剝離過(guò)程中，那很容易去皮栗子需要少得多的時(shí)間和費(fèi)用，除去藥膜。6 繁殖主要類型在今天的美國(guó)銷售的板栗樹(shù)是中國(guó)板栗苗。中國(guó)苗栗子一般都是可變的螺母尺寸，口味，樹(shù)形態(tài)和生產(chǎn)力。該樹(shù)結(jié)的 3-8 年，遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)晚于嫁接樹(shù)種。在某些情況下，比嫁接樹(shù)更耐寒更加旺盛。栗子在美國(guó)的大多數(shù)現(xiàn)有的種植面積是苗。在作物的質(zhì)量很大的可變性降低板栗的銷路。 嫁接和芽接繁殖是對(duì)栗子的克隆最常見(jiàn)的方式。 栗子有時(shí)會(huì)受到砧木/接穗不親。造成這種不兼容的因素是生態(tài)和遺傳。接穗嫁接到砧木具有不同的同工酶可能會(huì)顯示活力差，不一致的農(nóng)作物，甚至死亡的移植物上面的接穗。移植物在非常寒冷的氣候或嚴(yán)重發(fā)熱或干旱后失敗了。生長(zhǎng)環(huán)境：栗子可以生長(zhǎng)在各種氣候條件和環(huán)境中，但適合種植桃子的范圍通常被認(rèn)為是適于生長(zhǎng)的許多板栗的栽培品種。栗子也遍及用于山核桃生產(chǎn)領(lǐng)域在佛羅里達(dá)州生長(zhǎng)良好。生產(chǎn)堅(jiān)果的最佳條件包括溫暖和相對(duì)較長(zhǎng)的生長(zhǎng)季節(jié)和溫和的冬天。灌溉是建議最大的螺母生產(chǎn)尤其重要的果園初步建立。雖然栗子花下旬，春季霜凍可能會(huì)損壞新的成長(zhǎng)新芽，并應(yīng)避免低洼霜口袋。栗子喜歡 pH 值 5.0-6.5，排水良好的高地沙壤土。土壤不應(yīng)該受到積水和/或定期泛濫。如果機(jī)械收割機(jī)的使用，在野外太多斜坡在使用機(jī)器造成困難，而且潮濕的土壤條件，秋雨可以通過(guò)果園抑制方便移動(dòng)。北佛羅里達(dá)特別適合于不斷增長(zhǎng)的栗子。從奧蘭多向北穿過(guò)佛羅里達(dá)狹長(zhǎng)地帶的領(lǐng)域包括板栗種植已成長(zhǎng)為超過(guò) 40 年。果園種植和生產(chǎn)：樹(shù)苗間距差異很大取決于品種。然而， 20*20 （ 108 株/ 畝）是常見(jiàn)的。這個(gè)間距產(chǎn)生了樹(shù)木的緊密堆積之間的最佳平衡，以提高早期生產(chǎn)的果園和需要薄樹(shù)的作為冠開(kāi)始觸摸。栗子需要水分和肥料的管理良好的供應(yīng)。滴灌建議節(jié)約用水，有效地提供水源的樹(shù)木而已，而不是雜草在非作物區(qū)行之間。施肥方案應(yīng)根據(jù)土壤測(cè)試。然而，一個(gè)常見(jiàn)的應(yīng)用栗樹(shù)是 1 磅 10-10-10 或每樹(shù)齡高達(dá) 15 磅每棵樹(shù)在春天應(yīng)用年類似的分析。灌溉施肥，或頻繁通過(guò)滴灌系統(tǒng)飼養(yǎng)，是有效的，與營(yíng)養(yǎng)物質(zhì)的浸出損失較少促進(jìn)增長(zhǎng)。栗子是沉重的饋線和氮是正確的快速增長(zhǎng)尤其重要。像許多檳榔樹(shù)，栗子啟動(dòng)緩慢，需要 2-3 年才能完全建立。毛刺應(yīng)在第一個(gè)三年中刪除，以更好地促進(jìn)樹(shù)木生長(zhǎng)。大多數(shù)板栗果園類似山核桃的方式管理，用干凈的栽培下兩行之間的行和草皮覆畢業(yè)論文（外文翻譯）5蓋作物。年輕的板栗果園可間作一行作物，如花生常年，三葉草，草或小水果作物，直到板栗收獲開(kāi)始在 5 年后種植。7 修剪栗子承擔(dān)對(duì)兩性的柳絮（纖細(xì)，圓柱形的花簇） ，這是位于目前的年新梢生長(zhǎng)的基地附近。增長(zhǎng)的新丫發(fā)生在太陽(yáng)光的地方，在樹(shù)枝的頂端。修剪應(yīng)盡量陽(yáng)光提供給樹(shù)的數(shù)量。開(kāi)放式中心樹(shù)（如桃樹(shù)） ，讓陽(yáng)光照進(jìn)花瓶形的中間，以及頂部和兩側(cè)。歐洲的果園和日本和韓國(guó)的果園修剪以這種方式。 蘋(píng)果，山核桃，胡桃常用修剪系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生 - 創(chuàng)建一個(gè)錐形樹(shù)已經(jīng)支承表面都繞錐的外側(cè)。這種方法也可以接受的栗子使用。直立的樹(shù)木更好地應(yīng)對(duì)機(jī)械震動(dòng)以去除堅(jiān)果。非常分散的樹(shù)木可能會(huì)更加難以擺脫的堅(jiān)果，因?yàn)闃?shù)枝傾向于下垂，增加了振動(dòng)篩的振動(dòng)。證據(jù)也表明，較小的樹(shù)可能比那些太高，易于收獲更可取和修剪，隨著遺傳特征，將是重要的在確定最終的樹(shù)的形狀和大小。許多小的樹(shù)板栗品種產(chǎn)生了良好的佛羅里達(dá)很少修剪。8 果園害蟲(chóng)管理栗子有幾個(gè)嚴(yán)重的害蟲(chóng)。板栗疫?。ɡ跻卟【┲饕煽莘N植抗性品種淘汰。只有抗枯萎病樹(shù)應(yīng)考慮種植在佛羅里達(dá)州。墨疾病，疫霉根腐病菌，已在美國(guó)東南部的一個(gè)問(wèn)題，但可以通過(guò)果園地面管理控制，保持土壤排水良好，不受潮濕的環(huán)境，這對(duì)促進(jìn)感染。墨一直是一個(gè)問(wèn)題在歐洲和美國(guó)的太平洋海岸，在那有長(zhǎng)，潮濕的冬天領(lǐng)域。鹿和松鼠可以在栗子常見(jiàn)的野生動(dòng)物害蟲(chóng)。鹿圍欄可以是必要的，如果鹿是本地的害蟲(chóng)，以及可能需要的螺母的收獲如果松鼠或鹿是問(wèn)題。板栗象鼻蟲(chóng)（象鼻蟲(chóng)） ，奠定了在發(fā)展中的堅(jiān)果卵，和成熟的堅(jiān)果有蟲(chóng)在里面收獲成長(zhǎng)，導(dǎo)致堅(jiān)果變成滯銷。象鼻蟲(chóng)花，冬天地上樹(shù)下的蛹。很少有農(nóng)藥被標(biāo)記為板栗象鼻蟲(chóng)的控制權(quán)，所以衛(wèi)生習(xí)慣是關(guān)鍵。收獲完成后，收集所有多余的毛刺，堅(jiān)果和樹(shù)葉雜物和可能的話燒滅。東方栗癭蜂（栗癭蜂）是一種嚴(yán)重的害蟲(chóng)，形成蟲(chóng)癭在不斷發(fā)展板栗芽，從而停止螺母生產(chǎn)。生物和化學(xué)控制是尚未無(wú)效的這個(gè)黃蜂，但是一些韓國(guó)品種展示抵抗黃蜂。強(qiáng)烈建議不要從那里癭蜂蟲(chóng)害發(fā)生地區(qū)的移動(dòng)板栗樹(shù)或材料。授粉和螺母形成：栗子是雌雄同株;男性和女性的花著生在同一棵樹(shù)上（圖 4）目前的季節(jié)芽。鮮花出現(xiàn)在當(dāng)前季節(jié)增長(zhǎng)的秘訣，后葉子已經(jīng)完全展開(kāi)，和足夠的后期，以避免（5 月上旬至中旬在美國(guó)佛羅里達(dá)州）任何晚春霜凍。栗子是自育（不會(huì)自花授粉） ，因此，需要畢業(yè)論文（外文翻譯）6授粉。不完全授粉，將導(dǎo)致僅在一個(gè)或兩個(gè)螺母形成的毛刺的內(nèi)部;剩下的堅(jiān)果也不會(huì)填寫(xiě)。栗子主要是風(fēng)授粉的昆蟲(chóng)，雖然也可能有助于授粉。樹(shù)應(yīng)以至少 8:1 品種種植。嫁接樹(shù)開(kāi)始承擔(dān)在兩到四年，種苗將承擔(dān)五至七年。延遲生產(chǎn)的嫁接樹(shù)很可能會(huì)發(fā)生，因?yàn)槭诜蹣?shù)不開(kāi)花充分早年（種植后第三年至第五年） 。圖 4。 雄花和雌花在同一棵樹(shù)上。螺母的發(fā)展，并填寫(xiě)主要發(fā)生在過(guò)去兩到三個(gè)星期后熟（圖 5）之前。螺母在這段時(shí)間獲得其大部分重量，而且由于堅(jiān)果是 40％的水和 40％的碳水化合物，一個(gè)良好的水供應(yīng)，無(wú)論是從季節(jié)性降雨或灌溉，是最大限度地提高螺母的生產(chǎn)至關(guān)重要。從開(kāi)花到采收時(shí)間從 110-150 天不等，視品種。作為堅(jiān)果成熟，毛刺開(kāi)始裂開(kāi)，并且螺母被釋放的毛刺或飛邊落在從樹(shù)的堅(jiān)果還在里面（圖 6） 。圖 5。 苞（中心） ，成熟的栗子（左）和未成熟的栗子（右） 。畢業(yè)論文（外文翻譯）7圖 6。 板栗毛刺裂接近收獲的季節(jié)。9 采收和儲(chǔ)藏栗子的收獲是傳統(tǒng)上用手工勞動(dòng)完成的，其中，在小果園，可以比機(jī)械收獲更有效。因?yàn)槔踝邮歉咛妓衔?，它們衰變迅速，必有收獲每隔兩到三天消除的時(shí)間花在堅(jiān)果在地面上的金額。栗子的機(jī)械收割是大致相同的山核桃，杏仁，核桃或行業(yè)。振動(dòng)器是成功的，因?yàn)閺臉?shù)上將毛刺去除的手段。螺母和毛刺可以被收集，無(wú)論是在 catch 框架或在樹(shù)下地面網(wǎng)狀網(wǎng)，或是堅(jiān)果可以拿起各種機(jī)械山核桃收割機(jī)或設(shè)計(jì)用于其他堅(jiān)果作物收割機(jī)。一旦從果園收集，螺母和毛刺是分開(kāi)的，并且將螺母直接進(jìn)入冷卻器。該毛刺是通過(guò)去毛刺裝置，諸如那些用于除去胡桃的殼，或山核桃吸塵器運(yùn)行。綠色毛刺與不發(fā)達(dá)堅(jiān)果（尚白）可以單獨(dú)舉行，直到成熟的堅(jiān)果在數(shù)天。螺母洗滌，然后按大小分級(jí)，并存儲(chǔ)在緊密編織的，但透氣網(wǎng)袋在 32 華氏度和85％的濕度。栗子將持續(xù)長(zhǎng)達(dá)半年，當(dāng)這些條件下儲(chǔ)存。在較高溫度下，將螺母將衰減比，因?yàn)樵谳^低溫度下更高的生物活性的更快。高濕度是必需的，因?yàn)閳?jiān)果會(huì)脫水，失去其質(zhì)量在大多數(shù)冷卻器?？焖俳?45-60 分鐘） ，熱水（ 125O F）可以殺死許多腐爛的有機(jī)物和板栗象鼻蟲(chóng)幼蟲(chóng)。熱水浸漬后，將螺母在冷水中冷卻，然后存儲(chǔ)在32O F。處理整個(gè)栗子，可去皮罐裝或冷凍。這種處理通常增加了產(chǎn)品的貨架壽命比新鮮堅(jiān)果畢業(yè)論文（外文翻譯）8和，更重要的是，降低了消費(fèi)者的勞力和時(shí)間的制劑的量。添加到去皮和包裝產(chǎn)品的價(jià)值是巨大的，可能是重要的在增加栗子的市場(chǎng)規(guī)模，尤其是增加使用的螺母超越傳統(tǒng)栗子的季節(jié)，感恩節(jié)和圣誕節(jié)。預(yù)打包為適應(yīng)栗子美國(guó)市場(chǎng)的一個(gè)非常重要的考慮因素。 機(jī)械可用于機(jī)械剝離和包栗子。去皮，冷凍栗子將保留他們的口味長(zhǎng)達(dá)兩年。栗子也可以曬干后磨成面粉。在歐洲和東方，栗子粉早已高度在做面包，面食和糕點(diǎn)珍貴的甜味。特產(chǎn)板栗產(chǎn)品正變得越來(lái)越普遍可在美國(guó)市場(chǎng)，并通過(guò)網(wǎng)絡(luò)銷售。市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷用于在美國(guó)長(zhǎng)大許多堅(jiān)果發(fā)達(dá)的配送系統(tǒng)也可用于在這個(gè)國(guó)家種植栗子。種植者與大型，高品質(zhì)的栗子可與進(jìn)口的栗子作物有利競(jìng)爭(zhēng)，因?yàn)閲?guó)內(nèi)的種植者可以達(dá)到美國(guó)市場(chǎng)的時(shí)間較早，并提供一個(gè)新鮮的產(chǎn)品，因此，賣(mài)出高價(jià)。有在美國(guó)種植優(yōu)質(zhì)板栗許多有潛力的市場(chǎng)。美味和健康食品市場(chǎng)和餐館提供的網(wǎng)點(diǎn)，消費(fèi)者通常在嘗試和學(xué)習(xí)新的食品產(chǎn)品的興趣。民族法語(yǔ)，意大利語(yǔ)和東方市場(chǎng)已經(jīng)攜帶板栗產(chǎn)品，有興趣找本地的，高品質(zhì)的栗子來(lái)源。幾乎所有的連鎖超市進(jìn)行進(jìn)口栗子在感恩節(jié)和圣誕節(jié)。當(dāng)?shù)厣鐓^(qū)農(nóng)貿(mào)市場(chǎng)正變得越來(lái)越受歡迎，在佛羅里達(dá)州，并作為出口市場(chǎng)的堅(jiān)果。網(wǎng)絡(luò)銷售也可以是一個(gè)成功的方法賣(mài)栗子和栗子的產(chǎn)品。9 營(yíng)養(yǎng)栗子是一種高營(yíng)養(yǎng)的食物。與大多數(shù)堅(jiān)果，這是高脂肪（山核桃和核桃） ，栗子只有一絲贅肉，三分之一其他堅(jiān)果，如花生或腰果的熱量。栗子也有顯著量的維生素C 的唯一螺母和無(wú)膽固醇。栗子的蛋白質(zhì)品質(zhì)優(yōu)異和可比較的氨基酸含量是雞蛋的。栗子被認(rèn)為是“一個(gè)糧食，生長(zhǎng)在樹(shù)上， ”是類似的營(yíng)養(yǎng)糙米。栗子好吃，并且可以在各種不同的方式，包括在火上烤或清蒸在湯，燉菜，蛋奶酥，開(kāi)胃餡料和甜點(diǎn)的使用做好準(zhǔn)備。栗子可干燥后制成的面食或甜面粉糕點(diǎn)和面包。菜泥或蜜餞，板栗是全歐洲最喜歡的甜點(diǎn)。用途和很高的營(yíng)養(yǎng)品質(zhì)，從多年生木本作物這種多樣性所做的栗子一種流行的食物來(lái)源，包括整個(gè)歷史以及在世界各地的許多不同的文化。表：表 1 中。 美國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)部于 2001 年提出的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，栗子成績(jī)。大小分類 最小直徑 （英寸） 最大直徑 （英寸）畢業(yè)論文（外文翻譯）9猛犸 1 3/8 不是最大巨型 1 1/41 1/2 巨人 11/81 3/8 大 1 1 1/4表 2基于每磅堅(jiān)果的數(shù)量板栗大小標(biāo)準(zhǔn)等級(jí) 堅(jiān)果/磅級(jí)號(hào)碼 A 36-39AA 27-30AAA 22-24AAAA 19-20AAAAA 18 或更小腳注1 ：這份文件是 HS1155 ，由一系列的園藝科學(xué)系和佛羅里達(dá)州合作推廣服務(wù)，食品和農(nóng)業(yè)科學(xué)研究所，美國(guó)佛羅里達(dá)大學(xué)之一。首次由愛(ài)迪斯出版于 2009 年，2012 年 8 月評(píng)論，這是原始文件的修訂副本，栗子成長(zhǎng)在南方的介紹到生產(chǎn)，市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷，經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)，由 RD 華萊士和 PJ VanBlockland 。佛羅里達(dá)大學(xué)的 1989 年，食品資源經(jīng)濟(jì)系。工作畢業(yè)論文（外文翻譯）10人員報(bào)告。2 ：羅伯特 C. Hochmuth ，多縣擴(kuò)展代理，薩旺尼谷農(nóng)業(yè)推廣中心; 羅伯特·D ·華萊士，商業(yè)種苗，栗山苗圃，阿拉楚阿，佛羅里達(dá)州; 彼得·范 Blokland ，教授，食品和資源經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)，印度河流域研究和教育中心，和 Jeffrey G.威廉姆森教授，園藝科學(xué)系，美國(guó)佛羅里達(dá)大學(xué)。蓋恩斯維爾，佛羅里達(dá)州 32611 。食品和農(nóng)業(yè)科學(xué)研究所（獨(dú)立財(cái)務(wù)顧問(wèn)）提供平等機(jī)會(huì)的機(jī)構(gòu)授權(quán)只對(duì)與相對(duì)于種族，信仰，膚色，宗教，年齡，殘疾非歧視性功能的個(gè)人和機(jī)構(gòu)提供研究，教育信息等服務(wù)，性別，性取向，婚姻狀況，國(guó)籍，政治觀點(diǎn)或隸屬關(guān)系。有關(guān)獲取其他 UF / IFAS 延長(zhǎng)出版物的更多信息，請(qǐng)聯(lián)系您所在縣的 UF / IFAS 擴(kuò)展辦公室。農(nóng)業(yè)， UF / IFAS 推廣服務(wù)，佛羅里達(dá)大學(xué) IFAS ，佛羅里達(dá)州 A＆M 大學(xué)合作推廣計(jì)劃，以及縣委員的合作委員會(huì)的美國(guó)能源部。尼克 T.廣場(chǎng)，院長(zhǎng) UF / IFAS 擴(kuò)展。本文來(lái)自http://www.renrendoc.com/p-316064.html畢業(yè)論文（外文翻譯）11Production and Marketing of Chestnuts in the Southeastern United States1Robert C. Hochmuth, Robert D. Wallace, Peter J. Van Blokland, and Jeffrey G. Williamson2This is a revised copy of the original document, An Introduction to Production, Marketing, and Economics of Growing Chestnuts in the South East United Sates, by R.D. Wallace and P.J. VanBlockland. 1989. University of Florida, Dept of Food Resource Economics. Staff report. #354IntroductionChestnuts (Castanea sp.) are represented by several species of trees in the beech family (Fagaceae). The chestnut is native to warm, temperate areas the Northern Hemisphere.The United States is one of the few nations in the world that can grow chestnuts and does not have a significant commercial chestnut industry. Because the United States has such a small (less than 1 percent of world production) chestnut industry, chestnuts are imported to the United States in quantities with total annual value exceeding $20 million. Development of new chestnuts cultivars, advances in propagation, and cultural techniques now allow for expansion of the commercial chestnut industry in the United States. Chestnuts may make a viable alternative crop for small farmers in Florida who are looking to diversify their operations.HistoryFew tree crops have as much historical importance as a food source throughout the world as do chestnuts. Chestnuts were one of the earliest tree crops to be domesticated and were even mentioned in Chinese poetry more than 5000 years ago. The European settlers of North America found the New World was virtually one solid chestnut forest. The American chestnut was once among the most common trees in the eastern forest, from Maine to Georgia and west to the Mississippi. This amazingly useful tree offers rot-resistant lumber, which was used for several items, from fence posts to furniture. The chestnut tree was also a source of tannin, in addition to its beautiful crop of nuts. But the accidental introduction of the chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) from the Orient in 1904 killed almost every American chestnut in the United States in less than 40 years. The loss of the chestnut in the United States is considered one of the greatest botanical disasters in Western history. 畢業(yè)論文（外文翻譯）12The chestnut industry is highly developed in Europe and in the Orient. The Republic of Korea and China are the top two countries for chestnut production; together these countries produce more than 40 percent of the world's chestnuts. Other major chestnut-producing countries include Italy, Turkey, Bolivia, Japan, Spain, and Portugal. The primary exporters of chestnuts to the United States are Italy, China, and The Republic of Korea. Chestnut imports to the United States increased from 4,500 metric tons in 2003 to 5,400 metric tons in 2004, an increase that indicates the growing demand for chestnuts among U.S. consumers. The annual value of chestnuts imported to the United States is more than $20 million. The development of new American x Chinese hybrid chestnut cultivars -- which are resistant to chestnut blight and produce large, sweet nuts -- have helped to make possible expansion of the domestic chestnut industry in the United States, including in Florida. The new chestnut cultivars have high-quality characteristics that compete favorably with the imported nuts. However, the commercial U.S. chestnut industry is relatively new; most growers have less than 10 years of experience. Major states for chestnut production include California, Oregon, Washington, Michigan, Florida, Ohio, and Virginia.Chestnut EconomicsChestnuts can be a productive and profitable orchard crop. Trees begin to bear after three to five years, and improved cultivars can, at maturity, produce from 1,000 - 1,500 pounds or more per acre every year. The nuts bring from $0.75-2.50 per pound wholesale, (depending on nut size) and $2-5.00 per pound retail, depending on the market. Marketing of domestic chestnuts has been primarily through local or direct market sales methods. Some American growers advertise fresh chestnuts via the Internet at prices of more than $10 per pound in small quantities, but this price includes FedEx or UPS shipping and handling. Local, direct-to-consumer sales may be up to $4.00 or 5.00 per pound, but such prices decrease considerably in sales to brokers, wholesalers, grocery chains, and other large markets. To move American-grown chestnuts in large quantities, prices must to be competitive with imported nuts, and quality of American production must be superior to the quality to which foreign wholesale buyers and their American customers are accustomed. Chestnuts crops grown in the United States have the advantage of reaching American markets earlier than imported chestnuts, with better quality control, and without the costs of international shipping. However, the key to success in moving large quantities of chestnuts is through marketing, education of the consumer and distributors, and the development of relationships with knowledgeable persons in food-distribution services. Many opportunities for marketing that did not exist in the past for small growers are now available through the Internet, but targeted marketing efforts to the food industry can also be very valuable.Chestnut Species and HybridsFour species of chestnuts and several of their hybrids are grown in the United States today. ? American chestnuts (Castanea dentata) have small, sweet nuts, upright growth form, and are highly susceptible to chestnut blight. 畢業(yè)論文（外文翻譯）13? The European chestnut (Catanea sativa) is also blight susceptible and can only be grown in blight-free areas. European chestnuts trees have an upright tree form, and the nuts from European chestnuts can be quite good from some cultivars. However, many of the cultivars and seedlings produce nuts that are bland or bitter in taste and difficult to peel. ? Chinese chestnuts (Castanea mollissima) are highly blight resistant, and some cultivars produce nuts of good size and sweet taste that are also easy to peel. Chinese chestnut trees are sometimes upright in growth form, but many are low, spreading and multiple branched at the ground. ? Japanese chestnuts (Castanea crenata) are small, spreading, blight-resistant trees that produce large, poor tasting nuts. Japanese chestnuts are mostly used for hybridization.? Chinkapins (several species) produce small, sweet nuts (one per burr), are often of shrubby form and are not used for commercial nut production. The members of the genus Castanea are very closely related and interhybridize readily. Hybrids offer some of the best potential for promising commercial cultivars. In Europe, most chestnut breeding has been done with Japanese x European crosses. In Japan and Korea, the majority of the commercial production today is with Chinese x Japanese hybrid cultivars.In the United States, some of the recently developed American x Chinese hybrids offer the combination of characteristics that make for excellent commercial cultivars for Florida (Fig 1).Figure 1. American x Chinese hybrid chestnut tree.[Click thumbnail to enlarge.] Nut Quality and GradesSizeA primary concern in any cultivar is the size of the nuts produced. For marketing to a fresh or pre-packaged market, large size is required (Fig 2). While the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has not adopted any standards for grades of chestnuts, the following size standards were proposed by the USDA in 2001 (Table 1).畢業(yè)論文（外文翻譯）14Figure 2. Customers prefer larger individual nuts.[Click thumbnail to enlarge.] Importers have sometimes used size standards based on the number of nuts per pound (Table 2). Nuts smaller than 40 count per pound are difficult to distribute through mass marketing systems (brokers and grocery chains) because of the American desire for larger chestnut sizes (Fig 3). Smaller chestnuts are generally less desirable in the American market and bring a lower price. If, however, the chestnuts are used for drying, pureeing, flour or candies, size is not as important.Figure 3. Various nut sizes among chestnut cultivars.[Click thumbnail to enlarge.] TasteTaste is also very important. Some cultivars have a higher sugar content, even raw. The carbohydrates in chestnuts turn to sugar as the nuts mature and dry. Curing is important before cooking chestnuts, to bring out the flavor of the nuts. The American chestnut is quite sweet, as are chinkapins. Some of the Chinese chestnuts and the American hybrids have very sweet nuts. Some of the European and Chinese varieties are, by comparison, not as sweet.Ease of PeelingThe third nut characteristic of importance is ease of peeling the nut. The pellicle or “skin” that surrounds the kernel is bitter and must be removed before eating. In some types of chestnuts, the pellicle is ingrown into the rough 畢業(yè)論文（外文翻譯）15surface of the kernel, which makes the nuts difficult to peel and, therefore, poor eating quality. Many European chestnuts have this undesirable characteristic. The French distinguish between types of chestnuts based on the ease of peeling. Marrons, a chestnut native to the Mediterranean, have smooth-surfaced kernels that are easy to peel, and the chataignes having an ingrown pellicle. The marrons command a much higher price in the stores in France and in the United States than do the chataignes, but both types of chestnut are shipped to the United States where they are popular among American consumers. The American and Chinese chestnuts and their hybrids more frequently have smooth kernels and are easier to peel. Ease of peeling is important in commercial processing, as well as for acceptance by the consumer; a little bit of the kernel is lost in the peeling process, and chestnuts that are easily peeled require much less time and expense to remove the pellicles.PropagationThe predominant type of chestnut trees sold in the United States today is Chinese chestnut seedlings. Seedling Chinese chestnuts are generally variable in nut size, taste, tree form and productivity. The trees bear in 3-8 years, much later than grafted stock. The trees are, in some cases, more vigorous than grafted trees and more cold hardy. Most existing plantings of chestnuts in the United States are seedlings. Wide variability in the quality of the crop reduces the marketability of chestnuts.Grafting and budding are the most common ways of propagation for clones of chestnuts. Chestnuts can sometimes be affected by root stock/scion incompatibility. Factors causing this incompatibility are both ecological and genetic. Scions grafted onto rootstock with differing isoenzymes may show poor vigor, inconsistent crops, and sometimes death of the scion above the graft. Grafts fail more in very cold climates or after severe heat or drought stress. Location and SiteChestnuts can be grown in a wide variety of climates and environments, but the range that is suitable for growing peaches is often considered to be suitable for growing many of the chestnut cultivars. Chestnuts also grow well throughout the areas in Florida used for pecan production. The best conditions for the production of nuts include a warm and relatively long growing season and a mild winter. Irrigation is recommended for maximum nut production and is especially important in initial orchard establishment. Though chestnuts flower late, spring frosts can damage new growing shoots, and low-lying frost pockets should be avoided.Chestnuts prefer a well drained, upland sandy loam of pH 5.0-6.5. The soil should not be subject to standing water and/or periodic flooding. If mechanical harvesters are to be used, too much slope in the field can create difficulties in using the machinery, and wet soil conditions with autumn rains can inhibit easy movement through 畢業(yè)論文（外文翻譯）16the orchard. North Florida is especially suited to growing chestnuts. Areas from Orlando north through the Florida Panhandle include chestnut plantings that have been growing for more than 40 years.Orchard Planting and ProductionOrchard spacing varies greatly depending upon the cultivar. However, 20X20 (108 trees/acre) is common. This spacing creates the optimum balance between close packing of the trees to increase early production of the orchard and the need to thin trees as the crowns start to touch. Chestnuts require a well managed supply of moisture and fertilizer. Drip irrigation is recommended to conserve water and effectively provide water to the trees only, rather than to weeds in non-crop areas between rows. Fertilization programs should be base