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1、An Introduction to Linguistics 語(yǔ)言學(xué)導(dǎo)論 陳林華,Chapter One Linguistics Definition Linguistics differs from other sciences in that it both uses languages as the tool and takes languages as its object to study. 3.Philology Linguistics (語(yǔ)文學(xué)） （語(yǔ)言學(xué)）,In the mid of 19th F.De Saussure (the founder of general ling
2、uistics）,4. Linguistic study (1) diachronic study 歷時(shí)性學(xué)習(xí) Study the development of language in the course of time. 研究語(yǔ)言在不同時(shí)期的特點(diǎn)。 (2) synchronic study 共時(shí)性學(xué)習(xí) Study linguistics at a particular point of time (given linguistic status or stage of a particular language) 研究語(yǔ)言在同一時(shí)期的不同階段。, linguistic study: pri
3、mary synchronic study 研究語(yǔ)言難在： language is always changing people in the same speech community do not say the same language features of a language, cant be replaced quickly and completely.,5. Langue Parole langue 語(yǔ)言 parole 言語(yǔ) ,a set of rules or conventions an abstract linguistic system in every speak
4、ers mind not actually spoken e. relatively stable,Actual spoken Specific (concrete) situational the use of the rules or conventions, Parole is the realization of the langue,6. Language competence language performance LAD innate (capacity/intuitive to acquire language) experience Grammar (for a parti
5、cular language) competence performance isnt innate,working like a machine,As. Material product, competence (Grammar) is equal to everybody ideal knowledge of language user performance isnt equal to everybody influenced by psychological and social factors. Performance is the realization of the knowle
6、dge Knowledge is the essence of the competence Behavior is the essence of the performance Communicative Competence-Hymes,7. prescriptivism & descriptivism Prescriptivism:,Set down a kind of form, admit one dialect or variety is more superior than another. Form grammar, pronunciation, lexicon. Regula
7、te people how to actually use language. How things should be. Language police,Descriptivism:,Language is live, changing. If one of language is expressive, logical, then it is a good language. b) observer/ recorder/ of language how things actually be/ what people actually say.,Chapter Two Language De
8、finition of language : a set of rules (eg. Syntactic rules),A well-organized system,of,arbitrary,vocal,symbols,Used for human communication,: there is no logical and intrinsic connection between objects and symbols.,: the sound, spoken language, most important medium.,: people use it to represent ob
9、jects, ideas, opinions or actions.,: human specific (人類特有 ）,2. Design features of language Arbitrariness Productivity Duality Displacement Cultural transmission Transferability Linearity interchangeability,3. Social functions of language Communicative means (the most important one) The means for con
10、ceptual thinking and recognition of the world. (3) The vehicle and transmitter of culture. language is cultural-dependant language mirrors culture,4. Functions of language in communication Phatic Directive function Informative function Expressive function Interrogative function Evocative function Pe
11、rformative function,Chapter Three Phonetics: sound of language,Definition of phonetics: The scientific study of speech sounds, which are used by all human languages or by a particular language to represent meanings. Branches: (1) articulatory phonetics (發(fā)音（聲）語(yǔ)音學(xué)) ：The study of the production of the
12、sound. (2) accustic phonetics (聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)）：concerned with physical properties of these sounds.,(3) Auditory phonetics (聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)）:concerned with the reception/ perception of the hearer. 3. International Phonetics Association (IPA) International Phonetics Alphabet (IPA) 國(guó)際音標(biāo) （1） nasalized 鼻音化 元音 （2） velarized
13、 軟腭化 （3） devoiced 輕（弱）音化 （4） dentalized 齒音化 （5） asparated 吐氣音,Labials /p/ /b/ /m/ Labiodentals /f/ /v/ Alveolars /d/ /t/ /s/ /z/ /n/ /r/ /l/ Velars /g/ /k/ / Interdentals / / Palatals /h/ /?/ Labiovelars /w/ /M/,Vowels approximants(延續(xù)音） non-continuants continuants = = glides liquids stops/plosive af
14、fricates fricatives w/M l = t s f j r nasal oral d z v h m p k t n b g d sibilants (hissing) sonorants obstruents (阻塞音） (voiced)響聲,Palatal Voiced fricative,z alveolar voiced fricative,f fricative voiceless obstruent labiodentals,w glide approximant sonorant voiced labiovelars,Vowels The height of th
15、e tongue high vowels, mid vowels, low vowels The position of the tongue front vowels, central vowels, back vowels lip-rounding unrounded vowels, rounded vowels Tenseness of the tongue tense vowels, lax vowels,Rounded vowels: /u:/ /u/ /ou/ /:/ / / Unrounded vowels: /i:/ /i/ /e/ /ei/ / /:/ / / Tense v
16、owels: /i:/ /u:/ /ei/ /ou/ /a:/ /:/ /:/ Lax vowels: /i/ /u/ /e/ / / / / / /,Chapter Four Phonology 1. Definition: the science or the scientific study of the system and the patterns of the speech sounds of languages. 2. Phonetics(語(yǔ)音學(xué)）：how the sounds produced, transmitted, received. 3. Phonemes(音位）：sp
17、eech sound segments that can distinguish or contrast words in sound and meaning are called phonems.,Phone: (音素）a phone is a phonetic unit or segment in the phonetically realization of a phoneme. ph 2 versions of one phoneme /p/ Phones 2 realization of one phoneme p= The number of allophones (音位變體）is
18、 limited. Allophones: The different phones which represent or derive from one phoneme are called the allophones of that phoneme.,一個(gè)音位的不同變化形式 音位變體 每一個(gè)可以讀出的音叫做音素。 一個(gè)音如果沒(méi)有讀出叫做音位。 4. Phonetic representation 語(yǔ)音表達(dá) phonemic representation 音位表達(dá) Phonetic representation：of utterances shows what the speakers k
19、now about the pronunciation of utterances. Phonemic representation: of the utterances shows what the Speakers know about the abstract or underlying phonemic representation of words.,5. Minimal pair: when two different words are identical in every way except for one phoneme which occurs in the same p
20、lace, they are said to form a minimal pair. 6. Phonemic feature: （distinctive feature) 區(qū)分特征 when two words are phonetically identical except for one feature, the phonetic differences is distinctive, as this difference alone can account for the meaning contrast. 7. Free variations: the different pron
21、unciations of one word are called free variations.,8. Complementary distribution: when two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution. 9. Syllables (音節(jié)）:a syllable is the smallest structured sound unit made up o
22、f a rule-governed sequence of phonemes. peak 音節(jié)峰 peak Syllable onset 節(jié)前輔音 kn coda 音節(jié)尾 onset coda,/m/ /n/ /l/ /r/ can be peak phonological rules: The rules that determine the occurrence of phonemes in particular language. distinctive feature: (phonemic feature) 區(qū)分特征（音位特征） suprasegmental features: pit
23、ch 音調(diào) falling tone ( 超切分的音位特征） intonation語(yǔ)調(diào) rising tone （suprasegmental stress重音 fall-rise tone phonemes) length音長(zhǎng) rise-fall tone pause停頓 juncture音渡，連音,10. Phonological rule 音位規(guī)則 (1) aspiration rule 吐氣規(guī)則 (2) Assimilation rule 同化規(guī)則 (3) Devoicing rule 輕音化規(guī)則 (4) Dentalization rule 齒音化規(guī)則 (5) Nasalizatio
24、n rule 鼻音化規(guī)則 (6) Homorganic nasal rule 同部位鼻音規(guī)則 (7) Deletion rule 省略規(guī)則 (8) Vowel schwa rule 非重讀元音規(guī)則 (9) Metathesis rule 移位規(guī)則 （11）dissimilation rule (10) Epenthesis rule 插音規(guī)則 異化規(guī)則,11. Formalization of phonological rules to become in the environment of features - before - after a sound # word final / w
25、ord initial,/p/ +consonant +alveolar /k/ -voiced /s/ +fricative /t/ +stop +consonantal -vocalic +sibilant -vocalic +voiced,Nasalization rule: a vowel is nasalized when it appears before a nasal. 2. Aspiration rule: /p/ /k/ /t/ appears at the beginning of a word and before a stressed vowel. 3. Unaspi
26、ration rule: /p/ /k/ /t/ appears after /s/ and before a stressed vowel. 4. Devoicing rule: nasals and liquids when occurring after voiceless consonants, may become devoiced. 5. Dentalization rule 6. Vowel schwa rule 7. Deletion rule,Chapter Five Morphology 1. word: is the smallest meaningful unit wh
27、ich can be used independently. (1) physically definable unit. (between two pauses) the common factor underlying a set of form a grammatical unit 詞匯的語(yǔ)法單位 sentence clause phrase word morpheme,(2) Features of words stability relative uninterruptability minimal free form (3) Classification of words open
28、 class: whose membership is not limited, fixed, can be regularly expanded. Eg. Nouns, verbs, adjectives. closed class: they cant easily expand their new membership. eg. Conj, pron. Num, articles,Variable words: ordered and regular series of grammatical forms. Eg. study-studying-studied-studies Invar
29、iable words: those which have no inflective endings. eg. Seldom/ always/ often grammatical words (function words) 虛詞：express grammatical meanings. Eg. Conj, pron, prep lexial words (content words) 實(shí)詞：express lexical meanings. Eg. Nouns, verbs, adj.,adv.,(4) Word class new classes particles 小品詞，助詞 to
30、-infinitive marker 不定式符號(hào) not-negative marker 否定符號(hào) subordinate: unit of a verbal phrase. Eg. Go on auxiliaries 助動(dòng)詞 will, do, have, had a) inversion form b) negative form Auxiliaries are different from verb Eg. Will -will not verb dont, proform 代詞形式，替代形式 pro-adjectives 代形容詞，pro-verb, pro-adverb, pro-l
31、ocative 代方位詞 eg. My shoes is black, so is hers. He studies better than I do. He hopes the exam will be canceled, I hope so. The broom is there, in the corner. Proform: a word can take the place of certain words., determiners 限定詞 pre-determiners 前限定詞：all, both, half, twice, 3 times central-determiner
32、s 中限定詞：a, the, this, that, these, those post-determiners 后限定詞：ordinal numerals, 序列詞 general ordinals序數(shù)詞. Determiners: refers to the words which can be used to modify the head noun of a noun phrase.,2. Morphology Definition Morpheme: is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit. Morph: each of the phon
33、etic forms or variants is a morph. allomorph 1. in complementary distribution features 2. have the same/common meaning 3. occur in parallel formation hold the same position,Types of morpheme Free morpheme (root) 自由語(yǔ)素：usually carries the basical meaning, can stand by itself as a word. Bound morpheme
34、(affix)黏著語(yǔ)素：it always be a part of a word. Root 詞根 Free root morpheme: root that can be used freely, stand by itself. Bound root morpheme: can carry some meaning, but cant be used freely.,Free and bound root morpheme: can be used both. Affix: prefix infix suffix Inflectional affix/morpheme: just sho
35、w grammatical meaning. eg. Teachers learning Derivational affix/morpheme: is an affix which is used to form a derivative. eg. remarry,3. Word formation Stem eg. Friendships root suffix stem distempered root suffix stem Monomorphenic 單語(yǔ)素中 stem=root eg: sang,stem is the part that is left after removed
36、 all the inflectional morphemes. root is the part which is left after all the affixes are removed inflectional affixes derivational affixes (2) Ways of word formation Derivation 派生法（衍生法）：is a way to add affixes to bases to form new words. prefix derivative 衍生詞 infix eg. understand-understandable suf
37、fix happy-unhappy,Word class unchanged un- happy-unhappy dis- like-dislike b) Word class changed verb-noun n-verb -er / -or/ -ize /-fy compounding Compounds made up of same category n + n - bookstore adj. + adj. - white-hot red-hot prep. + prep. - into within onto upon b) Compounds made up of differ
38、ent category,Part of speech of the compound falls to the 2nd element. eg. Scarecrow 稻草人 n. v. n. Part of speech of the compound falls to 1st element. eg. Brother-in law passer-by looker-on c) The grammatical relationship between the elements of a compound. 1. coordinative 并列的 bookstore, deaf-mute, c
39、lassroom 2. qualifier-head 偏正的 reading-room, snow-white 3. subject-predicate 主謂的 man-made, sunrise, spoon-feed 4. verb + object 動(dòng)賓的 callgirl, playboy,d) Spelling of compounds 1. there is no space. Eg. Football 2. there is a hyphen. Eg. Snow-white 3. there is a space. Eg. Red-light district meaning o
40、f the compounds isnt the sum of the meaning of all the elements. Eg. red-meat 牛肉，羊肉 white-lie 善意的謊言 Red-cap 空憲兵 blue-stocking 清高女子 Blue-blood 貴族血統(tǒng) white elephant 大而不實(shí)用東西 Jack Robinson 平常人, conversion: is the way in which we get new words by changing their parts of speech. abbreviation (shortening of
41、 clipping) : is the way to make a word shortened or clipped. 1. cut the final part. Eg. Photo-photograph 2. cut the initial part 3. cut both the initial and the final part eg. Influenza-flu refrigerator-fridge Back formation eg. To burgle (from burglar) to beg (from beggar) to edit (from editor) to
42、laze (from lazy), sentence-condensation eg. Touch-me-not stay-at-home forget-me-not blending 1. initial part of 1st + final part of 2nd eg. Motel, smog, botle 2. initial part of two words eg. Digicom digital computer telex teleprinter exchanger onomatopoeia: is the way to form new words by imitating
43、 natural sounds. (imitation & root-creation), reduplication: refers to the formation of words by reduplicating or repeating sounds. eg. Humpty-dumpty 矮胖的 criss-cross 雜亂的 Acronymization 1. alphabetisms eg. UN 2. words pronounced as common words eg. Laser (lightwave amplification by stimulated emissio
44、n of radiation) 11. Analogical form co-existence of regular and irregular form (for verbs),Chapter six syntax: structure of sentences Syntax: is a part of the grammar of a language, dealing with the structures of sentences and the rules governing them. Paradigmatic rules: refers to the relationships
45、 that hold among sets of intersubstitutable linguistic elements at a particular place in s structure. Parts of speech/ word class/ form class a) words belong to the same parts of speech have some differences. b) one word can belong to different parts of speech.,(2) How to judge parts of speech a) ac
46、cord to meaning b) distribution position in a sentence c) inflection (3) Grammatical category: grammatical meanings can be classified into different categories, called grammatical categories. In other words, a grammatical category is the classification of grammatical meanings. The commonly found gra
47、mmatical categories are person, number, gender case, tense, aspect, voice, mood and so on.,Person the first person, the second person, the third person the distinction between the three persons may be made by appropriate subjective pronouns. 2. Number singular + plural 3. Gender masculine + feminine
48、 + neuter 4. Case nominative 主格 which marks the subject of the sentence accusative 賓格 which marks the object of a transitive verb dative 與格which marks the indirect object ablative 離格 which marks the instrument with which sth is done, genitive 所有格 which marks the possession vocative 呼格 which is the c
49、ase of address Eg. Madam, I wanted to get him the girls book with the card. vocative nominative dative genitive accusative ablative How to change case? Inflectional ending. Eg. teacher - teachers Distribution/ position. Word order eg. John bite John. John bite Tom. 3. According to the verb and prepo
50、sition eg. Ill go with the boy.,5. Tense past present future 6. Aspect perfect progressive non-progressive verb= stative verb eg. Know, hate, love, believe, have 7. Voice active voice + passive voice passivization: a) the active subject passive agent b) the active object passive subject c) the prep.
51、 “by” is introduced before the agent,8. Mood imperative indicative subjunctive 2. Syntagmatic rules A sentence is formed according to phonological, morphological, syntactic and semantic rules. Phonological rules: used to form meaningful morphemes. Morphological rules: used to conjoin morphemes into
52、words. Syntactic rules: used to form phrases, clauses and sentences. Semantic rules: applied to the making of meaningful sentences.,Combination of morphemes into words compounding, derivation, analogical form, abbreviation, back-formation, republication, onomatopoeia, blending, sentence-condensation
53、, acronymization, conversion b) Basic pattern of combination of words subject-predicate 主謂 verb-object 動(dòng)賓 verb-complement 動(dòng)補(bǔ) coordinative 并列 modifier-head 偏正 （2）constituent structure,Hierarchies: the units and subunits made up of words or morphemes that go together are called the hierarchies of comb
54、ination of grammatical unit or the constituents of a sentence. ICA or IC analysis ICA (immediate constituent analysis) Definition: a sentence can be segmented into the smallest meaningful linguistic units, such a method of cutting sentences or words into their meaningful component parts is called IC
55、A.,IC (immediate constituent): the components resulting from each division of a unit are termed IC. Ultimate constituents: the resultant segmentations or minimal grammatical units are called NP: noun phrase (infinitive phrase + gerundial phrase)主謂 VP: verb phrase PP: prepositional phrase Modifier 修飾
56、語(yǔ) AP: adjective phrase,How to ICA Bracket Tree diagram 樹(shù)形圖 3. Syntactic rules T-G grammar=transformational-generative grammar (Universal grammar) Syntactic component 句法 形 Phonological component 語(yǔ)音 音 Semantic component 語(yǔ)義 義,phrase-structure rules: NP, VP AP, PP syntactic base lexical insertion rule c
57、omponent transformations transformational rules: turn the deep structure of sentences into the surface structure through certain special rules, such rules are called Syntactic rules: the rules that determine what morphemes and words are combined into larger grammatical unit to get intended meanings
58、and how they are arranged in a sentence.,Functions of syntactic rules: They account for the “grammaticality” of sentences They determine the ordering of morphemes and words They reveal structural ambiguities of sentences They determine the grammatical relations between different parts of a sentence.
59、,phrase-structure deep structure syntactic base lexical-insertion rules T component transformational rules affix-hopping G ( structure形） recursive Grammar phonological reflexive component imperative （sound 音） passive semantic selectional-restrictional component strict-subcategorization （meaning 義） d
60、o-movement wh-movement,Lexical insertion rule: selectional-restriction rules 選擇限定規(guī)則 vi no VP followed animate/ inanimate NP following verb 2. Strict subcategorization rules 嚴(yán)格的次范疇化規(guī)則 govern the lexical insertion of verbs restrict the place of certain items The lexical insertion rules and the strict
61、subcategorization rules, provide the deep structure with necessary and appropriate lexical items., Affix-hopping rule 詞綴跳躍規(guī)則 （affix-shifting or affix Transformation rule recursive rules 循環(huán)規(guī)則：particular constituent can recur deflective transformational rule: within a sentence, if there are two occurr
62、ences of identical noun phrases that refer to the same individual, replace the second with a reflective pronoun that matches the first in person, number and gender. imperative transformation rule：if the subject is the second person in imperative sentences, the subject can be omitted., Do-movement wh-movement passive transformation rule Ambiguity: some sentences in th
《語(yǔ)言學(xué)導(dǎo)論》PPT課件.ppt
